tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-326778202024-02-28T01:56:59.494-03:00Abiotic Oil - Abiogenic Petroleum OriginAbiotic Oil; Abiogenic Petroleum origin; Origin of natural hydrocarbons (oil and gas); Inorganic Petroleum Origin; Primordial Hydrocarbons
Origem de hidrocabonetos naturais (petróleo e gás). Origem Inorgânica do Petróleo; Origem do Petróleo; Dmitri Y. Mendeleev; Marcelin Berthelot; Nikolai A. Kudryavtsev; Thomas Gold; Robert Robinson; Emmanuil B. Chekaliuk; J. F. Kenney; P. Szatmari; G. A. Kutcherov;Geologisthttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03044199967329570135noreply@blogger.comBlogger11125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-32677820.post-41353569298634037402013-06-14T23:58:00.002-03:002013-06-15T00:00:12.484-03:00<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<span style="color: blue; font-size: x-large;">More evidence for "Abiotic" oil</span></h1>
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<span class="submitted">By Alan David Bergey on 28 August 2012 - 3:30pm</span></div>
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My belief is that oil comes not from living organic matter but produced from the primordial earth. It was then locked deep within the earth as the earths crust formed.. This theory comes from Russian scientist in the 1950’s. (Its not a new theory) Below I note the main reasons why the “Fossil fuel” theory should be refuted.</div>
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1. <strong>There is massive amounts of oil</strong>. Every time the industry says “they are running out of oil” they find more. They have been claiming that they are running out of oil for 100 years (with a big scare in the 1970’s) and as time has gone on the have always found more reserves. The oil industry itself has consistently underestimated the oil reserves especially if “recoverable reserves” are considered rather than proven reserves.</div>
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<strong>How much oil is there?</strong> There is a Massive difference between <strong>“ known oil in place”</strong> and<strong>“</strong><strong>proven oil reserves”</strong></div>
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By definition <strong>“</strong><strong>Proven oil reserves”</strong> <strong> </strong>are those reserves claimed to have <strong>a </strong>reasonable certainty (normally at least 90% confidence) of being recoverable under <strong>existing</strong> <strong>economic</strong>and <strong>political</strong> conditions, with <strong>existing technology</strong>. At present for the whole world this is estimated to be 1.35 Trillion barrels. For the USA this is at present is estimated to be 22 Billion Barrels ( Conventional drilling for oil). For Canadian tar sands it is 173 Billion barrels. Therefore as technology increases or the price increases <strong>“known oil in place”</strong> ( read below) can become <strong>“proven oil reserves”</strong></div>
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<strong>“ known oil in place”</strong> is what geologist estimate is the total amount of oil that is there. For USA, it is 3 Trillion Barrels, if all oil shale’s are included, (1000 times proven reserves). The Bazhenov. field in Western Siberia, in Russia has recently been estimated to be 80 times the size the of the Green river formation in the USA the largest previous known formation. See web article below. (<a href="http://www.forbes.com/sites/christopherhelman/2012/06/04/bakken-bazhenov-shale-oil/" style="color: #339933;">http://www.forbes.com/sites/christopherhelman/2012/06/04/bakken-bazhenov-shale-oil/</a>) For the Canadian tar sands 1.7 – 2 Trillion Barrels, a minimum of 10 times proven reserves. The Venezuelan, government claims a reserve of bitumen even greater than Alberta's, Estimated total of Canada+ Venezuelan 3 -5.4 Trillion Barrels. .</div>
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Map of known tar and oil shale’s on the planet and articles.<span style="color: #339933;"><a href="http://thetyee.ca/News/2010/09/09/OilSandsWorld/">http://thetyee.ca/News/2010/09/09/OilSandsWorld/</a></span> <a href="http://thetyee.ca/Opinion/2011/01/14/TarSandsWorldsDirtiest/" style="color: #339933;">http://thetyee.ca/Opinion/2011/01/14/TarSandsWorldsDirtiest/</a></div>
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2. <strong>Initial theory of Fossil oil</strong>. When the initial theory of “Fossil oil” appeared around 1890 the scientific community did not know that the primordial earth had a atmosphere consisting of mainly Carbon Dioxide, Methane, Water vapor and Ammonia. Nor did they know that these compounds existed on the gas giants and some of their moons in our solar system. The theory was therefore by default because they could not think of any other place the oil could come from.</div>
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3 <strong>Russian oil exploitation.</strong> There are presently more than 80 oil and gas fields in the Caspian district alone which were explored and developed by applying the perspective of the abiotic theory which produce oil from the crystalline basement rock. (Krayushkin, Chebanenko et al. 1994) Crystalline basement rock forms below sedimentary rock. Clearly the oil could not form above basement rock and then seep through it. Similarly, exploration in the western Siberia cratonic-rift sedimentary basin has developed 90 petroleum fields of which 80 produce either partly or entirely from the crystalline basement.</div>
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4 <strong> Depth that oil is found. </strong> Oil is being found at depths of 30,000 feet. The deepest fossils known are from 16,000 feet. How could oil form from fossils if some oil is 14,000 feet below any of the deepest fossils. </div>
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5 <strong>Chemical differences of Crude Oil to that in life.</strong></div>
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The various elements that make up the cell ( Life) and Crude Oil are: </div>
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="border-collapse: collapse; margin: 1em 0px; width: 604px;"><tbody style="border-top-color: rgb(100, 16, 47); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 2px;">
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Element</div>
</td><td nowrap="nowrap" style="padding: 4px 10px;" valign="bottom" width="90"><div style="text-align: center;">
Weight % </div>
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in life</div>
</td><td nowrap="nowrap" style="padding: 4px 10px;" valign="bottom" width="108"><div style="text-align: center;">
Weight %</div>
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in oil</div>
</td><td nowrap="nowrap" style="padding: 4px 10px;" valign="bottom" width="84"> Ratio:<br />
Life / oil</td><td nowrap="nowrap" style="padding: 4px 10px;" valign="bottom" width="125">Element is:</td></tr>
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Hydrogen</div>
</td><td nowrap="nowrap" style="padding: 4px 10px;" valign="bottom" width="90"><div style="text-align: center;">
10.2</div>
</td><td nowrap="nowrap" style="padding: 4px 10px;" valign="bottom" width="108"><div style="text-align: center;">
14</div>
</td><td nowrap="nowrap" style="padding: 4px 10px;" valign="bottom" width="84"> 1:1.37</td><td nowrap="nowrap" style="padding: 4px 10px;" valign="bottom" width="125">Concentrated</td></tr>
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Oxygen</div>
</td><td nowrap="nowrap" style="padding: 4px 10px;" valign="bottom" width="90"><div style="text-align: center;">
66</div>
</td><td nowrap="nowrap" style="padding: 4px 10px;" valign="bottom" width="108"><div style="text-align: center;">
1</div>
</td><td nowrap="nowrap" style="padding: 4px 10px;" valign="bottom" width="84"> 66:1</td><td nowrap="nowrap" style="padding: 4px 10px;" valign="bottom" width="125">De-concentrated</td></tr>
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Carbon</div>
</td><td nowrap="nowrap" style="padding: 4px 10px;" valign="bottom" width="90"><div style="text-align: center;">
17.5</div>
</td><td nowrap="nowrap" style="padding: 4px 10px;" valign="bottom" width="108"><div style="text-align: center;">
84</div>
</td><td nowrap="nowrap" style="padding: 4px 10px;" valign="bottom" width="84"> 1:4.8</td><td nowrap="nowrap" style="padding: 4px 10px;" valign="bottom" width="125">Concentrated</td></tr>
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Nitrogen</div>
</td><td nowrap="nowrap" style="padding: 4px 10px;" valign="bottom" width="90"><div style="text-align: center;">
2.4</div>
</td><td nowrap="nowrap" style="padding: 4px 10px;" valign="bottom" width="108"><div style="text-align: center;">
1</div>
</td><td nowrap="nowrap" style="padding: 4px 10px;" valign="bottom" width="84"> 2.2:1</td><td nowrap="nowrap" style="padding: 4px 10px;" valign="bottom" width="125">De- Concentrated</td></tr>
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Sulfur</div>
</td><td nowrap="nowrap" style="padding: 4px 10px;" valign="bottom" width="90"><div style="text-align: center;">
0.2</div>
</td><td nowrap="nowrap" style="padding: 4px 10px;" valign="bottom" width="108"><div style="text-align: center;">
2</div>
</td><td nowrap="nowrap" style="padding: 4px 10px;" valign="bottom" width="84"> 10:1</td><td nowrap="nowrap" style="padding: 4px 10px;" valign="bottom" width="125">Concentrated</td></tr>
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Phosphorous</div>
</td><td nowrap="nowrap" style="padding: 4px 10px;" valign="bottom" width="90"><div style="text-align: center;">
0.9</div>
</td><td nowrap="nowrap" style="padding: 4px 10px;" valign="bottom" width="108"><div style="text-align: center;">
0.00015</div>
</td><td nowrap="nowrap" style="padding: 4px 10px;" valign="bottom" width="84"> 10000:1</td><td nowrap="nowrap" style="padding: 4px 10px;" valign="bottom" width="125">De- Concentrated</td></tr>
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Calcium</div>
</td><td nowrap="nowrap" style="padding: 4px 10px;" valign="bottom" width="90"><div style="text-align: center;">
1.5</div>
</td><td nowrap="nowrap" style="padding: 4px 10px;" valign="bottom" width="108"><div style="text-align: center;">
15* ppm</div>
</td><td nowrap="nowrap" style="padding: 4px 10px;" valign="bottom" width="84"> 1000:1</td><td nowrap="nowrap" style="padding: 4px 10px;" valign="bottom" width="125">De- Concentrated</td></tr>
<tr><td nowrap="nowrap" style="padding: 4px 10px;" valign="bottom" width="91"><div style="text-align: center;">
Magnesium</div>
</td><td nowrap="nowrap" style="padding: 4px 10px;" valign="bottom" width="90"><div style="text-align: center;">
500ppm</div>
</td><td nowrap="nowrap" style="padding: 4px 10px;" valign="bottom" width="108"><div style="text-align: center;">
5* ppm</div>
</td><td nowrap="nowrap" style="padding: 4px 10px;" valign="bottom" width="84">100:1</td><td nowrap="nowrap" style="padding: 4px 10px;" valign="bottom" width="125">De- Concentrated</td></tr>
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Vanadium</div>
</td><td nowrap="nowrap" style="padding: 4px 10px;" valign="bottom" width="90"><div style="text-align: center;">
Trace(1 ppm)</div>
</td><td nowrap="nowrap" style="padding: 4px 10px;" valign="bottom" width="108"><div style="text-align: center;">
1200 ppm **</div>
</td><td nowrap="nowrap" style="padding: 4px 10px;" valign="bottom" width="84">1200:1</td><td nowrap="nowrap" style="padding: 4px 10px;" valign="bottom" width="125">Concentrated</td></tr>
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* Maximum found in Pakistani oil fields</div>
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** Vanadium is present in fossil fuel deposits such as crude oil, coal, oil shale and tar sands. There is considerable variation in concentration.. In crude oil, concentrations up to 1200 ppm have been reported.</div>
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<strong>Chemical nature of Crude Oil.</strong> Crude oil is mainly hydrocarbons with very little oxygen and consists mainly of the following compounds.</div>
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<li style="list-style-position: outside; list-style-type: disc; margin: 0.5em 0px 0px; padding: 0px;"> <strong>Paraffin’s,</strong> general formula: <strong>CnH2n+2</strong> (n is a whole number, usually from 1 to 20) straight- or branched-chain molecules can be gasses or liquids at room temperature depending upon the molecule examples: methane, ethane, propane, butane, iso-butane, pentane, hexane</li>
<li style="list-style-position: outside; list-style-type: disc; margin: 0.5em 0px 0px; padding: 0px;"><strong>Aromatics,</strong> general formula: <strong>C6H5</strong><strong> </strong><strong>- Y</strong> (Y is a longer, straight molecule that connects to the benzene ring) ringed structures with one or more rings. Rings contain six carbon atoms, with alternating double and single bonds between the carbons typically liquids examples: benzene, naphthalene</li>
<li style="list-style-position: outside; list-style-type: disc; margin: 0.5em 0px 0px; padding: 0px;"><strong>Napthenes</strong> or <strong>Cycloalkanes</strong> general formula: <strong>CnH2n</strong> (n is a whole number usually from 1 to 20) ringed structures with one or more rings. Rings contain only single bonds between the carbon atoms typically liquids at room temperature examples: cyclohexane, methyl cyclopentane</li>
<li style="list-style-position: outside; list-style-type: disc; margin: 0.5em 0px 0px; padding: 0px;">Other hydrocarbons <strong>Alkenes</strong> general formula: <strong>CnH2n</strong> (n is a whole number, usually from 1 to 20) linear or branched chain molecules containing one carbon-carbon double-bond can be liquid or gas examples: ethylene, butene, <strong>Isobutene</strong><strong> </strong><strong>Dienes</strong><strong> </strong>and <strong>Alkynes</strong> general formula: <strong>CnH2n-2</strong> (n is a whole number, usually from 1 to 20) linear or branched chain molecules containing two carbon-carbon double-bonds can be liquid or gas examples: acetylene, butadienes</li>
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This nothing like the compounds in life, which tend to be carbohydrates, <strong>C</strong><strong>m</strong><strong>(H2O)</strong><strong>n</strong><strong></strong> Polysaccharides(e.g., <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Starch" style="color: #339933;" title="Starch">starch</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glycogen" style="color: #339933;" title="Glycogen">glycogen</a>), <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cellulose" style="color: #339933;" title="Cellulose">cellulose</a> in plants and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chitin" style="color: #339933;" title="Chitin">chitin</a> in arthropods), amino acids (Some Nitrogen) and fats and fatty acids (Glycerol based). The “oil experts” say the decayed products of life are buried deep underground and cooked under heat and pressure to obtain crude oil. ( OK but I have yet to see validated chemical reaction to produce crude oil under those conditions. )</div>
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However Ultra Violet (UV) free radical polymerization seems quite possible with the action of UV light from the sun on the primordial atmosphere. I suspect something like below.</div>
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CH4 +<em> hv</em> ----------------------------- CH3· + H ( Free radical)</div>
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CH3· + CH3· ------------------------- C2H6 (Ethane)</div>
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CH3 CH3 + <em>hv</em> --------------------------------- CH3 CH2· + H</div>
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CH3 CH2· + CH3 CH2· ----------- C4H10 (Butane)</div>
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CH3 CH2 – CH2 CH3 + hv ------ CH3 CH· - ·CH CH3 + 2H</div>
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CH3 CH· - ·CH CH3 ® CH3 – CH – CH - CH3 (Butene)</div>
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Higher molecular weight polymers can be formed by more addition of methane / ethane and obviously for higher chain molecules (C6+) cyclic compounds. The higher the molecular weight / boiling temperature the more likely the hydrocarbon will “rain out” of the atmosphere.</div>
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There are also papers describing that electrical discharge ( Lightening in atmosphere) can also polymerize methane to higher molecular weight hydrocarbons.</div>
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UV polymerization of methane is also suggested for Titans (Saturn’s moon) atmosphere of methane into ethane and higher molecular weight alkanes</div>
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<strong>Earth</strong> : Average distance from sun 149.6 million km<br />
<strong>Saturn</strong> : Average distance from sun 1.43 billion km == 9.5 times distance therefore 91 times less UV light per unit area than earth ( R2)</div>
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If it can occur on Titan then it could certainly happen on the primordial earth.</div>
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7 <strong>Oil found under salt domes:</strong> Conventional theory says that oil is under salt domes because the salt was deposited through drying of lakes and seas. Fossil life was buried underneath the salt layer ( How? Why not within the salt!) then all is deeply buried. The salt being a weak rock buckled under pressure ( Yes ) forming salt domes. I think that the buckling of the salt causes cracks in the underling rock and so allows abiotic oil to come up from deep below and is trapped beneath impermeable rock / salt layer.</div>
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8 <strong>Life recycles, generally not buried in the earth</strong>. When a plant or animal dies very little is truly buried. Mostly it is re-cycled by insects, micro-organisms, fungus’s, bacteria and Actinolites.</div>
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9 <strong>How much oil have humans used?</strong> Estimates vary, Istvan Lakatos and Julianna Lakatos-Szabo of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences estimate 700 Billion barrels. John Jones in the School of Engineering, at the University of Aberdeen, UK estimate 944 Billion barrels. Today oil consumption estimated at 90 Million barrels per day. Therefore 32.5 Billion barrels per year. Therefore in 29 maximum of years this will be we will double the oil we have used. ( At no growth).</div>
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9 <strong>Economics of oil</strong> What this means is that all the oil companies have to do is to drill deeper into basement rock where there has been folding or cracking underneath so that oil seepage could occur and they are likely to find conventional oil. Although drilling deeper is more expensive it is not prohibitively so and as technology increases going deeper will be more economic. The other important issue is this. As explained above there are massive amounts of unconventional oil. The amount of money spent by oil companies on Research and Development for extracting unconventional oil will almost certainly reduce the extraction and processing costs. Shell recently estimated that it could extract shale oil at $30 a barrel and the present 2012 price is $70-$90 a barrel.</div>
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The price of oil today is almost nothing to do with the cost of getting it out of the ground. The reality is that the high price is due to speculation ( World price for oil) and deliberately induced shortages both in crude oil production and refinery production.. I have read that oil could be extracted in shallow wells ( Saudi Arabia) at a profit of $5 a barrel. Even the Canadian tar sands may only require $25 per barrel. Speculation is very finicky. If it is thought there was a over abundance of oil then the “world price” could drop dramatically and conversely a shortage large price increases and we are seeing large fluctuations in price over short periods of time.</div>
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The environmental cost are not in the equation for costs. For instance if climate change effects food production or global warming causes the sea level to rise the cost of coastal flooding is not considered. </div>
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<strong>Green party policy. </strong> Therefore to stop using oil must be political. It cannot be economic because technology will keep the price down and present oil speculation is questionable for long term high prices. Green Party policy must be “ Stop drilling for more oil” Even if for instance they were to find a massive oil field in Canada that was “cheep oil” we cannot allow the oil companies to extract it. </div>
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We need to take political stand for the future and the environment and ignore the present false economics of oil.</div>
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To emphasize this the Green Party should stop calling oil a fossil fuel and name it by its more accurate name of “abiotic fuel”. ( This also includes natural gas.)</div>
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The last thing the planet and the human race needs is more oil!</div>
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Alan Bergey</div>
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Source: <a href="http://www.greenparty.ca/blogs/12489/2012-08-28/more-evidence-abiotic-oil">http://www.greenparty.ca/blogs/12489/2012-08-28/more-evidence-abiotic-oil</a></div>
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Geologisthttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03044199967329570135noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-32677820.post-79534235004098228982013-05-12T18:53:00.002-03:002013-05-12T22:59:26.723-03:00<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<span style="color: red; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: x-large;"><b>THE ABIOTIC THEORY OF HYDROCARBON GENERATION</b></span><br />
<span style="color: #666666; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large; text-align: justify;"><i>V.C. Kelessidis</i></span><br />
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<span style="color: #666666; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">The general saying among oil well drillers is that oil is where you find it, meaning that oil has been found in traditional and non-traditional places. What of course is considered traditional is that oil is found in sedimentary rocks, very close to the surface in the beginning of the century, while nowadays it may be found at considerable depths, now reaching almost 9000 m from the surface. There are of course finds in fractured basement rocks (metamorphic or igneous rocks) from where they are produced (Sircar, 2004). Batchelor and Gutmanis (2005) have compiled an extensive list of fields producing hydrocarbons from basement rocks, although most petroleum geologists dismiss them as being of non-commercial value.</span></div>
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<span style="color: #666666; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div>
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<span style="color: #666666; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">However, White Tiger, the oil field in Vietnam may prove them wrong because it is an excellent example of production from basement rock. The field currently produces 350.000 barrel oil per day, expecting to produce overall 600 million barrels (47 years of production at this place). The granitic basement rock is highly fissured with apparent permeabilities ranging from a few mD to up to 464 mD (Chan et al., 2006). The oil that is produced, however, has been characterized of biogenic origin (Nemchenko et al., 2007) with migration from underlying sedimentary rocks.</span></div>
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<span style="color: #666666; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div>
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<span style="color: #666666;"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">Of course, we find oil ‘where it is’, where it has remained for ages, but how was it formed? Current belief is that oil is of biotic origin, through accumulation of organic matter (plankton, single cell organisms that floated on ocean surface) and sedimentation followed by burial. For large periods organic material has been under very high pressures and temperatures, in the range of 130-150 </span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; line-height: 25px;"><span style="font-size: large;">°C</span></span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> , in a ‘cooking pot’ and gradually transformed to petroleum. Because of its lower density, it has migrated upwards and some surfaced and was lost, while some has hit non-permeable layers (the seal) and accumulated in the porous sedimentary rocks creating the world’s oil and gas fields.</span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #666666;"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">There is, however, another school of thought, not very well known until recent years, which is gaining, though, momentum. It is the theory of abiotic (or abiogenic) origin of petroleum, that hydrocarbons have been formed in the depths of Earth by reduction of CO2 and H2 gases in the presence of metal catalysts (Gold and Soter, 1980; Kenney, 1994; Krayushkin et al., 1994; Glasby, 2006; Wikipedia, 2009). The consequences of course of such a theory, if true, could be extraordinary, as Earth’s mantle becomes the inexhaustible provider of the cheapest energy source on Earth, by today’s standards, and shattering not only the oil-depletion myth but also pointing out to oil-rich regions in places devoid as prolific as before, because of belief of biogenic origin. Nikolai Alexandrovich Kudryavtsev (Kudryavtsev, 1951) was the first to start the theory of abiotic generation of hydrocarbons, in what has become the modern Russian-Ukrainian theory of abyssal, abiotic petroleum (Kropotkin, 1986; Kenney et al., 2002). However, Abbas (1996) starts the history as early as 1877 by Mendeleev and provides a good overview as well as pros and cons about the two points of </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">view.</span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #666666;"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">In principle, the abiotic theory states that under high pressures (less than 5000 bar) and high temperatures (between 500 and 1500 </span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; line-height: 25px;"><span style="font-size: large;">°C</span></span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> ) methane could be formed from reduced carbon resulted from calcite. The process has been supported theoretically, via thermodynamic analysis, and experimentally (Kenney et al., 2002). Methane may also be formed from volatile rich fluids resulting from partial melting of rocks within Earth’s interior (National Academy Press, 2007). Thermodynamics indicate that at 1300 K, CO2 and CO should be the predominant carbon rich gases, while at lower temperatures CH4 should be predominant (Eugster and Skippen, 1967), with Symmonds et al., (1994) supporting the first argument by measurements.</span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #666666;"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">Strong support for this hypothesis is the fact that methane and hydrocarbons are abundant in the outer solar system (Gold, 1979, 1984, 1985, 1993). There is reported evidence of abiotic formation of complex organics from methane in Saturn’s satellite Titan’s atmosphere (National Academy Press, 2007), although it is stated that there may be no connection to primitive Earth, because at the low surface temperature of Titan </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">(at 46 K) all water is turned into ice. Methane, ethane and acetylene have also been discovered in Comet C/1996 B2 Hyakutake (Mumma et al., 1996). The finding of very deep gas reservoirs, down to almost 10000 m, with extremely high success rates of more than 55%, has also been reported as evidence of abiotic generation of hydrocarbons (Corsi, 2005). Very recent works (Cathcart, 2007; Paropkari, 2008) have been </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">suggesting that we should be rethinking about oil exploration strategies in view of the substantial evidence about abiotic hydrocarbon origin.</span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #666666;"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">Kenney et al. (2002) analyzed theoretically, via thermodynamic computations, the possibilities for hydrocarbon generation at high pressures and temperatures and showed that it is possible. They went on and performed successful experiments, using a specially built high pressure apparatus (Nikolaev and Shalimov, 1999) at pressures of 50 kbar, temperatures to 1500 </span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; line-height: 25px;"><span style="font-size: large;">°C</span></span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> . Using only as reagents solid iron oxide and 99.9% pure marble, wet with triple distilled water, they were able to generate methane. They reported that at pressures lower than 10 kbar only methane was formed while at pressures greater than 30 kbar a multi-component hydrocarbon mixture was formed including methane, ethane, propane, n-alkanes as well as alkenes, in distributions characteristic of natural petroleum.</span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #666666;"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">Scott et al. (2004) have also reported in situ observations of hydrocarbon generation via carbonate reduction at upper mantle temperatures and pressures, forming methane from FeO, CaCO3-calcite and water at temperatures ranging between 500 and 1500 </span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; line-height: 25px;"><span style="font-size: large;">°C</span></span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> and pressures between 50 and 110 kbar. The authors were confident of the abiogenic theory of hydrocarbon generation thus concluding that Earth’s hydrocarbon budget is much larger than it is currently thought.</span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #666666;"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">Petroleum generation under hydrothermal conditions, with certain metals or alloys used as catalysts, has been amply demonstrated at lower temperatures and pressures. For e.g. Horita and Bernt (1999) used a nickel-iron alloy, similar to what could be found within Earth’s crust, to catalyze the slow, under other conditions, reaction of methane generation from dissolved bicarbonate, under hydrothermal conditions at 200 and 400 </span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; line-height: 25px;"><span style="font-size: large;">°</span></span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">C and 500 bar. Without the catalyst, no methane was formed, concluding that abiogenic methane may be more widespread than originally thought.</span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #666666;"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">Proskurowski et al. (2008) suggested, through analysis of components in hydrothermal oceanic vents that abiotic synthesis in nature of hydrocarbon fluids may occur in the presence of ultramafic rocks (which comprise mostly Earth’s mantle), water and moderate amounts of heat. On the other hand, Konn et al. (2008) analyzing data from same and other vents did not find conclusive evidence of the fact. He noted that, although amounts of hydrocarbons attributed to abiogenic origin were found, their signature has been difficult to characterize owing to the abundance of biogenic material. This is not far from the findings of Robinson (1963) who had noted at the time that the observed petroleum composition cannot really be attributed to biological origin, suggesting a primordial mixture to which bioproducts have been added. Ji et al. (2008) also presented results of generating a range of alcanes up to pentane, not only methane, from CO2 and H2 in hydrothermal conditions with cobalt as catalyst at 300 </span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; line-height: 25px;"><span style="font-size: large;">°</span></span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">C and pressures as low as 300 bar.</span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #666666;"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">Szatmari (1989) suggested the hypothesis of petroleum formation by Fischer-Tropsch synthesis, which is distinct from the organic and the inorganic coming from degassing theory of Gold. Foustoukos and Seyfried (2004) also demonstrated the acceleration of hydrocarbon production from CO2 and H2 with the Fischer-Tropsch reaction, using chromium and iron bearing minerals as catalysts, at 390 </span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; line-height: 25px;"><span style="font-size: large;">°</span></span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">C and 450 bars. Recent reports (Sherwood-Lollard et al., 2002) have identified traces of abiotically derived hydrocarbons in Kidd Creek hard rock mines. In the laboratory, abiotic synthesis of more complex organic compounds has been reported in aqueous media (McCollom et al., 1999).</span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #666666; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">Glasby (2006) gives a historical overview on the origin of hydrocarbons. He dismisses both the Russian-Ukrainian theory and the theory of gas degassing by Gold, as being non thermodynamically sound. He does not discuss, however, the Fischer-Tropsch type of reactions, pointed out above. Hence, his work serves as a very good reference, but to the author’s opinion, the final arguments are not as strong as they should have been. Interesting to note that he dismisses the Ukrainian theory on the basis of better evidence for the origin of higher hydrocarbons from organic matter, using better techniques, and noting that the theory is even forgotten in Ukraine, which is not true, as it has been recently demonstrated (Kutcherov, 2007; Kitchka, 2007).</span></div>
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<span style="color: #666666; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">V.C. Kelessidis. Challenges for very deep oil and gas drilling - will there ever be a depth limit? 3rd AMIREG International Conference (2009): Assessing the Footprint of 220 Resource Utilization and Hazardous Waste Management, Athens, Greece</span></div>
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Geologisthttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03044199967329570135noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-32677820.post-88491199785504390292012-10-27T23:03:00.001-02:002015-04-25T17:32:24.359-03:00Organic carbon on Mars is abiotic<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhE0m33coQ5Qe80NfiSZxv5VkIzl7fhUahkmMayvUO_nG0u3eorvQAg5609gY4RKEVoipmiGdn1NzW4lHc8ggqHCtM9yK_giascSEGfVAsBcD1T7amFPM9Rmd45ByyUkGxKTzGW/s1600/tissint-meteorite.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhE0m33coQ5Qe80NfiSZxv5VkIzl7fhUahkmMayvUO_nG0u3eorvQAg5609gY4RKEVoipmiGdn1NzW4lHc8ggqHCtM9yK_giascSEGfVAsBcD1T7amFPM9Rmd45ByyUkGxKTzGW/s1600/tissint-meteorite.jpg" height="197" width="320" /></a></div>
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<em style="border: 0px; font-family: arial, tahoma, sans-serif; line-height: 18px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-size: large;">The Tissint meteorite, a 58 gram sample of which is shown here, landed </span></em><br />
<em style="border: 0px; font-family: arial, tahoma, sans-serif; line-height: 18px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-size: large;">near Tata, Morocco in July of last year and was confirmed as martian in </span></em><br />
<em style="border: 0px; font-family: arial, tahoma, sans-serif; line-height: 18px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-size: large;">January. A new study shows that it and several other martian meteorites </span></em><br />
<em style="border: 0px; font-family: arial, tahoma, sans-serif; line-height: 18px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-size: large;">contain organic carbon of non- biological origin.</span></em><br />
<em style="border: 0px; font-family: arial, tahoma, sans-serif; line-height: 18px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-size: large;">Photo credit: Department of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences, University of Alberta</span></em><br />
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<b><span style="font-size: large;"><em style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Curiosity</em>, NASA’s latest Mars rover, will begin its search for chemical evidence of past life on the red planet in early August. But according to a new paper in <em style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; outline: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Science</em>, the surface of Mars contains organic carbon generated by non-biological sources, which could make that search even harder.</span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: large;">Very rarely, material ejected from the surface of Mars by cosmic impacts can make its way to Earth in the form of meteorites. Only about 60 martian meteorites are known, eleven of which were part of the study conducted by an international team of experts, including Chris Herd of the Department of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences at the University of Alberta. Inside the martian minerals, the team found particles of carbon. “What's interesting about this stuff is that it’s not just graphite, it's organic macromolecular carbon,” says Herd. Organic carbon is present in the dust from which the solar system formed, as evidenced by primitive meteorites which can contain anything from polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons to amino acids. Similar material would have been incorporated into Mars as it formed, stored in its interior, and could later have reached the surface by means of lava flows.</span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: large;">To test this theory, lead author Andrew Steele of the Carnegie Institution of Washington used confocal Raman spectroscopy, which allows for accurate determination of both the form and location of the carbon within a given meteorite’s crystal structure. In every case, the organic carbon particles were found in inclusions within igneous minerals. “The only way it could get there is if it was present in the original magma,” says Herd. “If it had been formed by some kind of biological process, you'd expect to find it associated with rust or material that formed through alteration by water, not with the igneous minerals.” Although the finding doesn’t completely rule out the possibility that Mars once harboured life, it serves as a reminder of just how hard Curiosity will have to work to prove otherwise.</span></b></div>
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<span style="font-size: 12px;">From: </span><span style="font-size: x-small;">Earth Chemistry </span><a href="http://www.accn.ca/index.php?ci_id=3478&la_id=1">http://www.accn.ca/index.php?ci_id=3478&la_id=1</a></div>
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Geologisthttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03044199967329570135noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-32677820.post-70377296160508750282011-11-01T01:29:00.000-02:002011-11-01T01:29:38.444-02:00Astronomers Discover Complex Organic Matter in the Universe<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><div style="color: blue; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: x-large;"><b>HKU Astronomers Discover Complex Organic Matter in the Universe</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><b> </b></span></div><br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi4TxMSOc-WAsKE255l4OGEQn6T-XimDt3MqRs-Cz9y2BDDDBz_SM_8o1b3syKevUKbTKDfrjgtEHKcZyMg7ujo4ktfQ_pyeW-i-8fdL5UnZzqB5towRhFYzcKpBNZYE-t93kqB/s1600/organic_stardust.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="400" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi4TxMSOc-WAsKE255l4OGEQn6T-XimDt3MqRs-Cz9y2BDDDBz_SM_8o1b3syKevUKbTKDfrjgtEHKcZyMg7ujo4ktfQ_pyeW-i-8fdL5UnZzqB5towRhFYzcKpBNZYE-t93kqB/s400/organic_stardust.jpg" width="371" /></a></div><div style="text-align: center;"></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: large;"><b> </b></span><span style="font-size: large;"> <b><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS",sans-serif;">A spectrum from the Infrared </span><span style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS",sans-serif;">Space Observatory superimposed </span><span style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS",sans-serif;">on an image of the Orion Nebula </span><span style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS",sans-serif;">where these complex organics are </span><span style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS",sans-serif;">found.</span></span></b></span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: large;"><b><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS",sans-serif;"> </span></span></b></span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: large;"><b><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS",sans-serif;"> </span></span></b></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiieHmYgC-Jd61af-3ZGdOntfBWpLJAQpLvz7OsuFrWZ-1qqI6hf5kG0zPvC1PK53e9RV7xR0LYwAkN_VGN6IwZm-Qo7H40B0ejXpVElkTciUPpVs3nheTPVn631kW-aGshxuoL/s1600/organic_stardust-0.jpg" imageanchor="1"><img border="0" height="313" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiieHmYgC-Jd61af-3ZGdOntfBWpLJAQpLvz7OsuFrWZ-1qqI6hf5kG0zPvC1PK53e9RV7xR0LYwAkN_VGN6IwZm-Qo7H40B0ejXpVElkTciUPpVs3nheTPVn631kW-aGshxuoL/s400/organic_stardust-0.jpg" width="400" /> </a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br />
</div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS",sans-serif;">A schematic structure of organic </span><span style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS",sans-serif;">matter in the Universe. This </span><span style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS",sans-serif;">typical structure is a mixture of </span><span style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS",sans-serif;">ring-like (aromatic) and chainlike </span><span style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS",sans-serif;">(aliphatic) chemical sites </span><span style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS",sans-serif;">and contains about 100 carbon </span><span style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS",sans-serif;">atoms. </span></b></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-size: large;">In today’s issue of the journal Nature, astronomers report that organic compounds of unexpected complexity exist throughout the Universe. The results suggest that complex organic compounds are not the sole domain of life but can be made naturally by stars.<br />
Prof. Sun Kwok and Dr. Yong Zhang of The University of Hong Kong show that an organic substance commonly found throughout the Universe contains a mixture of aromatic (ring-like) and aliphatic (chain-like) components. The compounds are so complex that their chemical structures resemble those of coal and petroleum. Since coal and oil are<br />
remnants of ancient life, this type of organic matter was thought to arise only from living organisms. The team’s discovery suggests that complex organic compounds can be synthesized in space even when no life forms are present.<br />
The researchers investigated an unsolved phenomenon: a set of infrared emissions detected in stars, interstellar space, and galaxies. These spectral signatures are known as “Unidentified Infrared Emission features”. For over two decades, the most commonly accepted theory on the origin of these signatures has been that they come from simple organic molecules made of carbon and hydrogen atoms, called polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) molecules. </span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"> From observations taken by the Infrared Space Observatory and the Spitzer Space Telescope, Kwok and Zhang showed that the astronomical spectra have features that cannot be explained by PAH molecules. Instead, the team proposes that the substances generating these infrared emissions have chemical structures that are much more complex. By analyzing spectra of star dust formed in exploding stars called novae, they show that stars are making these complex organic compounds on extremely short time scales of weeks.<br />
Not only are stars producing this complex organic matter, they are also ejecting it into the general interstellar space, the region between stars. The work supports an earlier idea proposed by Kwok that old stars are molecular factories capable of manufacturing organic compounds. “Our work has shown that stars have no problem making complex organic compounds under near-vacuum conditions,” says Kwok. “Theoretically, this is impossible, but observationally we can see it happening.”<br />
Most interestingly, this organic star dust is similar in structure to complex organic compounds found in meteorites. Since meteorites are remnants of the early Solar System, the findings raise the possibility that stars enriched the early Solar System with organic compounds. The early Earth was subjected to severe bombardments by comets and asteroids, which potentially could have carried organic star dust. Whether these delivered organic compounds played any role in the development of life on Earth remains an open question.</span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"> </span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-size: small;">Source:<a href="http://www.scifac.hku.hk/file/news/1413/Eng_press_release_Organic_Matter_in_the_Universe_.pdf%20">http://www.scifac.hku.hk/file/news/1413/Eng_press_release_Organic_Matter_in_the_Universe_.pdf </a></span></span></div></div>Geologisthttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03044199967329570135noreply@blogger.com3tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-32677820.post-82671956050648337762011-10-28T01:42:00.002-02:002012-07-13T21:46:52.397-03:00Russian-Ukrainian theory of deep, abiotic petroleum<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: x-large;"><b><span style="color: blue;"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Russian-Ukrainian theory of deep, abiotic petroleum</span> </span><br />
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<b style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Oil is NOT a fossil fuel </b></span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><i>by Peter J. Morgan</i> </span><br style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> We all grew up believing that oil is a fossil fuel, and just about every day this ‘fact’ is mentioned in newspapers and on TV. However, let us not forget what Lenin said – “A lie told often enough becomes truth.” It was in 1757 that the great Russian scholar Mikhailo V. Lomonosov enunciated the hypothesis that oil might originate from biological detritus. The scientists who first rejected Lomonsov’s hypothesis, at the beginning of the nineteenth century, were the famous German naturalist and geologist Alexander von Humboldt and the French chemist and thermodynamicist Louis Joseph Gay-Lussac, who together enunciated the proposition that oil is a primordial material erupted from great depth, and is unconnected with any biological matter near the surface of the Earth.</span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> </span><br style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> With the development of chemistry during the nineteenth century, and following particularly the enunciation of the second law of thermodynamics by Clausius in 1850, Lomonosov’s biological hypothesis came inevitably under attack. In science, a hypothesis is merely somebody’s attempt to explain something. It is merely that – an attempt. In the scientific method, a hypothesis is also an open invitation for somebody else to discredit it by using physical evidence to demonstrate that the hypothesis is flawed, or incorrect – that is how scientific knowledge is advanced. Einstein is reputed to have remarked that just one fact was all that was needed to invalidate his theory of relativity. </span><br style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> </span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> The great French chemist Marcellin Berthelot particularly scorned the hypothesis of a biological origin for petroleum. Berthelot first carried out experiments involving, among others, a series of what are now referred to as Kolbe reactions and demonstrated the generation of petroleum by dissolving steel in strong acid. He produced the suite of n-alkanes and made it plain that such were generated in total absence of any “biological” molecule or process. Berthelot’s investigations were later extended and refined by other scientists, including Biasson and Sokolov, all of whom observed similar phenomena and likewise concluded that petroleum was unconnected to biological matter. </span><br style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> </span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> During the last quarter of the nineteenth century, the great Russian chemist Dmitri Mendeleev also examined and rejected Lomonosov’s hypothesis of a biological origin for petroleum. In contrast to Berthelot who had made no suggestion as to where or how petroleum might have come, Mendeleev stated clearly that petroleum is a primordial material which has erupted from great depth. With extraordinary perception, Mendeleev hypothesised the existence of geological structures which he called “deep faults,” and correctly identified such as the locus of weakness in the crust of the Earth via which petroleum would travel from the depths. After he made that hypothesis, Mendeleev was abusively criticised by the geologists of his time, for the notion of deep faults was then unknown. Today, of course, an understanding of plate tectonics would be unimaginable without recognition of deep faults.</span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"></span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"></span><br style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> Soon after the end of World War II, the Soviet dictator, Stalin, realized that the then Soviet Union needed its own substantial oil reserves and production system if it was ever again called upon to defend itself against an attacker such as Hitler’s Germany. In 1947, the Soviet Union had, as its petroleum ‘experts’ then estimated, very limited petroleum reserves, of which the largest were the oil fields in the region of the Abseron Peninsula, near the Caspian city of Baku in what is now the independent country of Azerbaijan. At that time, the oil fields near Baku were considered to be “depleting” and “nearing exhaustion.” During World War II, the Soviets had occupied the two northern provinces of Iran, but in 1946, they were forced out by the British. By 1947, the Soviets realised that the American, British, and French were not going to allow them to operate in the Middle East, nor in the petroleum producing areas of Africa, nor Indonesia, nor Burma, nor Malaysia, nor anywhere in the Far East, nor in Latin America. The government of the Soviet Union recognised then that new petroleum reserves would have to be discovered and developed within the U.S.S.R. </span><br style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> </span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> Stalin’s response was to set up a task force of top scientists and engineers in a project similar to the Manhattan Project – the top-secret US program to develop the atom bomb during WWII – and initially under the same secrecy, and charged them with the task of finding out what oil was, where it came from and how to find, recover and efficiently refine it.</span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> </span><br style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> In 1951, the modern Russian-Ukrainian theory of deep, abiotic petroleum origins was first enunciated by Nikolai A. Kudryavtsev at the All-Union petroleum geology congress. Kudryavtsev analyzed the hypothesis of a biological origin of petroleum, and pointed out the failures of the claims then commonly put forth to support that hypothesis. Kudryavtsev was soon joined by numerous other Russian and Ukrainian geologists, among the first of whom were P. N. Kropotkin, K. A. Shakhvarstova, G. N. Dolenko, V. F. Linetskii, V. B. Porfir’yev, and K. A. Anikiev. </span><br style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> </span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> During the first decade of its existence, the modern theory of petroleum origins was the subject of great contention and controversy. Between the years 1951 and 1965, with the leadership of Kudryavtsev and Porfir’yev, increasing numbers of geologists published articles demonstrating the failures and inconsistencies inherent in the old “biogenic origin” hypothesis. With the passing of the first decade of the modern theory, the failure of Lomonosov’s eighteenth century hypothesis of an origin of petroleum from biological detritus in the near-surface sediments had been thoroughly demonstrated, the hypothesis discredited, and the modern theory firmly established. </span><br style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> </span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> An important point to be recognised is that the modern Russian-Ukrainian theory of abiotic petroleum origins was, initially, a geologists’ theory. Kudryavtsev, Kropotkin, Dolenko, Porfir’yev and the developers of the modern theory of petroleum were all geologists. </span><br style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> </span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Their arguments were necessarily those of geologists, developed from many observations, and much data, organized into a pattern, and argued by persuasion. </span><br style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> By contrast, the practice of mainstream, predictive modern science, particularly physics and chemistry, involves a minimum of observation or data, and applies only a minimum of physical law, inevitably expressed with formal mathematics, and argued by compulsion. Such predictive proof of the geologists’ assertions for the modern Russian-Ukrainian theory of deep, abiotic petroleum origins had to wait almost a half century, for such required the development not only of modern quantum statistical mechanics, but also that of the techniques of many-body theory and the application of statistical geometry to the analysis of dense fluids, designated scaled particle theory. </span><br style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> </span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> To recapitulate, Stalin’s team of scientists and engineers found that oil is not a ‘fossil fuel’ but is a natural product of planet Earth – the high-temperature, high-pressure continuous reaction between calcium carbonate and iron oxide – two of the most abundant compounds making up the Earth’s crust. This continuous reaction occurs at a depth of approximately 100 km at a pressure of approximately 50,000 atmospheres (5 GPa) and a temperature of approximately 1500°C, and will continue more or less until the ‘death’ of planet Earth in millions of years’ time. The high pressure, as well as centrifugal acceleration from the Earth’s rotation, causes oil to continuously seep up along fissures in the Earth’s crust into subterranean caverns, which we call oil fields. Oil is still being produced in great abundance, and is a sustainable resource – by the same definition that makes geothermal energy a sustainable resource. All we have to do is develop better geotechnical science to predict where it is and learn how to drill down deep enough to get to it. So far, the Russians have drilled to more than 13 km and found oil. In contrast, the deepest any Western oil company has drilled is around 4.5 km. </span><br style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> </span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> A team consisting of Russian scientists and Dr J. F. Kenney, of Gas Resources Corporation, Houston, USA, have actually built a reactor vessel and proven that oil is produced from calcium carbonate and iron oxide, as detailed on the -- </span><br style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> This is what Dr Kenney has to say about how he came to be involved: </span></span></div><div style="color: blue; font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif; text-align: justify;"><blockquote><b><span style="font-size: x-large;"><i>“In the first instance, the articles on this” (his company’s website --) “are dedicated to the memory of Nikolai Alexandrovich Kudryavtsev, who first enunciated in 1951 what has become the modern Russian-Ukrainian theory of deep, abiotic petroleum origins. After Kudryavtsev, all the rest followed. Secondly, these articles are dedicated generally to the many geologists, geochemists, geophysicists, and petroleum engineers of the former U.S.S.R. who, during the past half century, developed modern petroleum science. By doing so, they raised their country from being, in 1946, a relatively petroleum-poor one, to the greatest petroleum producing and exporting nation in the world today. These articles are dedicated specifically to the late Academician Emmanuil Bogdanovich Chekaliuk, the greatest statistical thermodynamicist ever to have turned his formidable intellect to the problem of petroleum genesis. In the Summer of 1976, during the depths of the cold war and at immeasurable hazard, Academician Chekaliuk chose to respond, across a gulf of political hostility, to an unsolicited letter from an unknown American chief executive officer of a petroleum company headquartered in Houston, Texas. Thenafter and for almost fifteen years, Academician Chekaliuk was my teacher, my collaborator, and my friend. [JFK] 1. Kudryavtsev, N. A. (1951) Petroleum Economy [Neftianoye Khozyaistvo] 9, 17-29.”</i></span></b> </blockquote></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"> Needless to say, the last people to tell us the truth about oil will be the oil producers and oil companies, for they of course have a vested interest in perpetuating the myth that oil is a fossil fuel and that it will soon be exhausted, in order to ratchet up the price for as long as they can. And don’t look to the Russians to enlighten the world with the truth about oil either, for they are surely laughing now that the oil price is approaching $US150 a barrel. <br />
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<span style="font-size: large;"> A US Public Service Radio interview with Dr Kenney may be heard on the --. <br />
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<span style="font-size: large;"> Some may ask “How come all of this isn’t commonly known?” For the answer, one needs to consider what happened to Galileo when he first put forward the hypothesis that rather than the conventional wisdom that the sun revolved around the earth, the earth revolved around the sun. He was branded a heretic and locked up! You are invited to read an excellent article entitled “Cognitive Processes and the Suppression of Sound Scientific Ideas”, by J. Sacherman 1997, at --</span><br />
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Some may say “Well, even if oil is a renewable resource, mankind should not burn it because the carbon dioxide so produced causes global warming.” My answer to that is that the idea that mankind’s production of carbon dioxide causes global warming is merely a hypothesis, and this has been thoroughly discredited by Prof. Robert Carter and numerous other scientists. You are invited to view a video of Prof. Robert Carter’s demolition of the “mankind’s production of carbon dioxide causes global warming” hypothesis -- where you will see Prof. Carter illustrate five examples of verifiable science that refute the hypothesis. Prof. Carter makes the point that truth in science is never decided by consensus, but if you prefer to believe the pronouncement by the United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) that “2,500 scientists of the United Nation’s IPCC agree that humans are causing a climate crisis”, which is repeated ad nauseam by environmentalists, the press and governments around the world, including ours, then you are invited to read an article at -- where Tom Harris and John McLean tell the truth about this deception and point out that “an example of rampant misrepresentation of IPCC reports is the frequent assertion that ‘hundreds of IPCC scientists’ are known to support the following statement, arguably the most important of the WG I report, namely “Greenhouse gas forcing has very likely caused most of the observed global warming over the last 50 years.” In total, only 62 scientists reviewed the chapter in which this statement appears, the critical chapter 9, “Understanding and Attributing Climate Change”. Almost 60% of the comments received from the 62 expert reviewers of this critical chapter were rejected by the IPCC editors and 55 of the 62 expert reviewers had serious vested interest, leaving only seven expert reviewers who appear impartial. In my view, seven does not constitute “a consensus of the world’s scientists..” If it’s consensus you want before you decide on what the truth is, then follow the link to The <u><a href="http://canadafreepress.com/www.network.nationalpost.com/np/blogs/fpcomment/archive/2008/05/17/32-000-deniers.aspx" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">National Post</a> </u>to read about the petition signed by more than 32,000 scientists, more than 9000 of whom hold PhDs. That’s consensus!</span></div></div>Geologisthttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03044199967329570135noreply@blogger.com13tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-32677820.post-88059969494915506942011-05-14T11:46:00.015-03:002012-08-08T21:41:39.429-03:00Oil Quotes<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<b><span style="color: red; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 28pt;">Oil Quotes</span></b></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"> Most part from: http://oilismastery.blogspot.com/</span></div>
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<span style="color: blue;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: x-large;"><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times, serif;">“Sigh. Why do people insist on perpetuating the myth that petroleum comes from dead plants and animals? The abiogenic origin of petroleum products is fairly established, and observable on other planets incapable of supporting life, yet with vast quantities of methane</span></i></b></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: x-large;"><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times, serif;">.”</span></i></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times, serif;"> </span></b></span></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"> </span><b style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><span style="color: #383838; font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: x-large; line-height: 18px;"><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;">-- </span></i></span></b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: x-large;"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times, serif;">Jere Krischel, 2010</span></b></span><br />
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<span style="color: blue; font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: x-large;"><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times, serif;">“</span></i></b></span><i><b><span style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: x-large;"><span class="" style="background-color: whitesmoke; outline: none; text-align: -webkit-auto;" tabindex="-1">From the analysis</span><span style="background-color: whitesmoke; text-align: -webkit-auto;"> </span><span class="hps" style="background-color: whitesmoke; text-align: -webkit-auto;">of a</span><span style="background-color: whitesmoke; text-align: -webkit-auto;"> </span><span class="hps" style="background-color: whitesmoke; text-align: -webkit-auto;">ketchup</span><span style="background-color: whitesmoke; text-align: -webkit-auto;"> </span><span class="hps" style="background-color: whitesmoke; text-align: -webkit-auto;">stain</span><span style="background-color: whitesmoke; text-align: -webkit-auto;"> </span><span class="hps" style="background-color: whitesmoke; text-align: -webkit-auto;">on a</span><span style="background-color: whitesmoke; text-align: -webkit-auto;"> </span><span class="hps" style="background-color: whitesmoke; text-align: -webkit-auto;">tie</span><span style="background-color: whitesmoke; text-align: -webkit-auto;"> </span><span class="hps" style="background-color: whitesmoke; text-align: -webkit-auto;">can not be concluded</span><span style="background-color: whitesmoke; text-align: -webkit-auto;"> </span><span class="hps" style="background-color: whitesmoke; text-align: -webkit-auto;">that the tie</span><span style="background-color: whitesmoke; text-align: -webkit-auto;"> </span><span class="hps" style="background-color: whitesmoke; text-align: -webkit-auto;">would be </span><span style="background-color: whitesmoke; text-align: -webkit-auto;"></span><span class="hps" style="background-color: whitesmoke; text-align: -webkit-auto;">made from</span><span style="background-color: whitesmoke; text-align: -webkit-auto;"> </span><span class="hps" style="background-color: whitesmoke; text-align: -webkit-auto;" tabindex="-1">tomatoes</span></span></b></i><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: x-large;"><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times, serif;">.”</span></i></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times, serif;"> </span></b></span></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"> </span><b style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><span style="color: #383838; font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: x-large; line-height: 18px;"><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;">-- </span></i></span></b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: x-large;"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times, serif;">Peter Szatmari, geologist</span></b></span><br />
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<b style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: xx-large; text-align: justify;"><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;">“</span></i></b><span style="color: blue; font-size: x-large;"><i><b><span style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif; text-align: center;">Two things are infinite: the universe and human stupidity; and I'm not sure about the universe.</span></b></i></span><b style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: xx-large; text-align: justify;"><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;">”</span></i></b><b style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: xx-large; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;"> </span></b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: x-large; text-align: justify;"><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;">-- </span></i></b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><b>Albert Einstein</b></span><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times, serif;">, physicist, cosmologist</span></b></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: x-large;"><b style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;">“New ideas in science are not always right just because they are new. Nor are the old ideas always wrong just because they are old. A critical attitude is clearly required of every scientist</span></i></b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: blue;"><b>.</b></span></i></span><b style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;">” </span></i></b><b style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;">-- </span></i></b><b style="color: blue; font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif; text-align: left;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times, serif;"><b style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;">Thomas Gold, </span></b></span></b><b style="color: blue; font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif; text-align: center;"></b></span></div>
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<b style="font-size: xx-large;"><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;">“</span></i></b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: blue; font-size: x-large;"><b>What they've been teaching us in school about oil coming from fossils is wrong.</b></span></i></span><b style="font-size: xx-large;"><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;">”</span></i></b><b style="font-size: xx-large;"><span lang="EN-US" style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;"> </span></b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: x-large;"><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;">-- </span></i></b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><b>C. Warren Hunt</b></span><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times, serif;">, geologist</span></b></span><br />
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<span style="font-size: x-large;"><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;">“Although the biogenic, organic model has been the one generally accepted by the petroleum industry almost since its birth, abiogenic, inorganic models recurrently emerge, proposed by geologists and, more often, chemists.”</span></i></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;"> </span></b><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;">-- </span></i></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times, serif;">Peter Szatmari, geologist, 2011</span><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;"> </span></i></b></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: x-large;"><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;">“The world is full of resources - the question is how we can apply technology to make then energy resources</span></i></b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times, serif;"><b><span style="color: blue;">.” </span></b></span></i><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;">-- </span></i></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times, serif;">Robert Ryan, E&P manager, 2009</span></b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times, serif;"><b><span style="color: blue;"> </span></b></span></i></span></div>
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<b style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: xx-large;"><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;">“</span></i></b><i><span lang="EN-US"><span style="font-size: x-large;"><b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: blue;"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Recent theoretical and experimental evidence demonstrates the possibility that hydrocarbons may have formed in the depths of the earth. If the theory is substantiated further, then oil-depletion becomes a myth and the industry must be ready to face the new challenges of drilling even deeper, to the basement rock, where huge oil fields may await to be discovered, as White Tiger in Vietnam has proved.</span></span></span></span></span></b></span></span></i><i style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif; text-align: left;"><span lang="EN-US"><span style="font-size: x-large;"><b><i style="font-size: medium; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US"><span style="font-size: x-large;"><i style="color: black; font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times, serif;"><span style="color: blue;">”</span></span></i><i style="color: black; font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;"> </span></i></span></span></i></b></span></span></i><i><span lang="EN-US"><span style="font-size: x-large;"><b><span style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif; font-style: normal;"><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times, serif;">-- </span></i></span></b></span></span></i><i style="text-align: left;"><span lang="EN-US"><span style="font-size: x-large;"><b><i style="font-size: medium; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US"><span style="font-size: x-large;"><i style="font-size: medium;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times, serif;"><span style="font-size: x-large;"><i style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: medium;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times, serif;"><span style="color: blue; font-size: x-large;"><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times, serif;"><span style="color: blue; font-size: x-large;"><i style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times, serif;"><span style="color: blue;"><span style="color: black; font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif; font-style: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times, serif;">V.C. Kelessidis, Sethptember 2009</span></span></span></span></i></span></span></i></span></span></i></span></span></i></span></span></i></b></span></span></i></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: x-large;"><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times, serif;"><b><span style="color: blue;">“There is no doubt that our research proves that crude oil and natural gas are generated without the involvement of fossils. All types of bedrock can serve as reservoirs of oil.”</span></b></span></i><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;"> </span></i><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times, serif;">-- </span></i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times, serif;">Vladimir A. Kutcherov, geologist, September 2009</span></b></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: blue;"><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times, serif;"><b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: x-large;">“I</span></b></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><b><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: x-large;">n the coal is found well preserved fossils of plants and animals, including saber-toothed tigers. It is thought that the coal was originally a thin liquid that surrounded and hardened around the fossils. So the fact that coal contains fossils does not necessarily mean that it is a fossil fuel</span></i></b></span><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times, serif;"><b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: x-large;">.”</span></b></span></i></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: x-large;"><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;"> </span></i><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times, serif;">-- </span></i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times, serif;">M. Ragheb, nuclear physicist, 2009</span></b></span></div>
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<b><span style="color: blue;">“... our planet may have enormous, inexhaustible resources of hydrocarbons.”</span></b> <b>-- </b></span></i><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times, serif;">Vladimir A. Kutcherov, geologist, August 2009</span></b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times, serif;"><br />
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<b><span style="color: blue;">“We demonstrated the chemical transformation of methane to heavier saturated hydrocarbons such as ethane, butane and propane and its reversibility under the conditions of the upper Earth's mantle.”</span></b> <b>-- </b></span></i><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times, serif;">Alexander Goncharov, geologist, August 2009</span></b></span></div>
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<b><span style="color: blue;">“All major oil and gas provinces in the world are apparently associated with transtensive tectonic conditions, supporting the abiogenic theory of petroleum.”</span></b> <b>-- </b></span></i><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times, serif;">Karsten M. Storetvedt, geophysicist, August 2008</span></b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times, serif;"><br />
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<b><span style="color: blue;">“The modern theory of the abiotic deep petroleum origins recognizes that petroleum is a primordial material of deep origin which has been erupted into the crust of the Earth. In short, petroleum is not a 'fossil fuel' and has no intrinsic connection with any biological detritus 'in the sediments'.”</span></b> <b>--</b> </span></i><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times, serif;">Vladimir A. Kutcherov, geologist, August 2008</span></b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times, serif;"><br />
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<b><span style="color: blue;">“Ultra deep wells bring a range of unexpectedness - basically [a] change of views of structures and geochemical processes in Earth.”</span></b> <b>-- </b></span></i><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times, serif;">Yuri Galant, geologist, August 2008</span></b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times, serif;"><br />
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<span style="font-size: x-large;"><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times, serif;"> <b><span style="color: blue;">“It’s at least plausible that the 3.2 billion year old oil we found did in fact have an abiotic origin.”</span></b>--</span></i><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times, serif;">Roger Buick, strobiologist/geoscientist, July 2008</span></b></span></div>
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<b><span style="color: blue;">“Our findings illustrate that the abiotic synthesis of hydrocarbons in nature may occur in the presence of ultramafic rocks, water, and moderate amounts of heat.” </span>-- </b></span></i><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times, serif;">Giora K. Proskurowski, geochemist/oceanographer, February 2008</span></b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times, serif;"><br />
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<b><span style="color: blue;">“Five propositions in Geology, namely Plate Tectonics, Constant Size Earth, Heat Engine Earth, Elastic Rebound, and the Organic Origin of Hydrocarbon Reserves are challenged as Myths because their potential truth is not confirmed by Observation, and/or Experiment, and/or Logic. In their place the Excess Mass Stress Tectonics - EMST, i.e., a Solid, Quantified, Growing and Radiating Earth and its implications, such as the Inorganic Origin of Hydrocarbons, claims to be a Comprehensive Proposition.” </span>-- </b></span></i><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times, serif;">Stavros T. Tassos, seismologist/geoscientist, November 2007</span></b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times, serif;"><br />
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<span style="font-size: x-large;"><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;">“In the context of Excess Mass Stress Tectonics – EMST, hydrocarbons are energy sources produced abiotically through a process whereby hydrogen and carbon, but also oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur and trace-elements being formed in the Earth's core, rise through radial fracture trails in the solid and cold mantle to the Earth's surface. If their rise is blocked they compose bigger compounds, e.g., kerogen, that can transform by radiant heat in the upper 5 km or so of the Earth's interior, into gas, oil and coal, at temperatures <200, 100-50, and <50</span><sup><span lang="EN-US" style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;"> o</span></sup><span lang="EN-US" style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;">C, respectively. In the absence of trapping and/or above 200</span><sup><span lang="EN-US" style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;"> o</span></sup><span lang="EN-US" style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;">C, the temperature at which porphyrins are destroyed, they are released as methane gas, like in Titan today, and/or are fully oxidized to CO</span></i></b></span><span style="font-size: x-large;"><b><i><sub><span lang="EN-US" style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;">2</span></sub></i></b><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;"> and H</span></i></b></span><span style="font-size: x-large;"><b><i><sub><span lang="EN-US" style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;">2</span></sub></i></b><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;">O. Oil and gas reserves mature in basins adjacent to deformed precambrian shields and platforms, mostly during the last 200 m.y., when wide and deep oceans and a complex pattern of uplifts and sedimentary basins developed, thus providing the reservoirs and the structural and/or stratigraphic traps. They associate with moderate seismic and volcanic activity, free-air gravity, geoidal, and heat flow anomalies, and large igneous provinces, i.e., Excess Mass.” </span></i></b><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;">-- </span></i></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;">Stavros T. Tassos, seismologist/geoscientist, November 2007</span></b><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;"><br />
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“The paper presents a visual view of Expansion as opposed to Plate Tectonics. Superimposing oil and gas field locations on these visualized spreading zones may well indicate new areas for oil and gas discoveries to the professional.” </span></i></b><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;">-- </span></i></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;">Keith P. Wilson, geologist, November 2007</span></b><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;"><br />
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“The elemental distribution in the crude oil from all studied deposits does not match such of any known crustal rock.” </span></i></b><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;">-- </span></i></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;">Kirill S. Ivanov, geologist/geochemist, November 2007</span></b><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;"><br />
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“Generally in science, whenever new advances are made, old ideas should be re-examined in light of those advances. In the case of the abiotic origin of natural gas and petroleum, that is especially true, as the advances made pertaining to the processes operant during the formation of the solar system, and to the composition and dynamics of planet earth, all appear to greatly enhance the prognosis for those abiotic resources.” </span></i></b><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;">-- </span></i></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;">J. Marvin Herndon, geophysicist, September 2006</span></b><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;"><br />
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“Formation of higher hydrocarbons in the upper layers of the Earth's crust occurs only as the result of Fischer-Tropsch-type reactions in the presence of hydrogen gas but is otherwise not possible on thermodynamic grounds.” </span></i></b><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;">-- </span></i></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;">Geoffrey P. Glasby, geologist, 2006</span></b><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;"><br />
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“Examples of the occurance of abiogenically-derived hydrocarbons have been recorded.” </span></i></b><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;">-- </span></i></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;">Geoffrey P. Glasby, geologist, 2006</span></b><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;"><br />
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“It is possible to convert methane into a complex mixture of higher alkanes and alkenes at high pressures and temperatures but not carbohydrates, the fundamental building blocks of plants.” </span></i></b><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;">-- </span></i></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;">Geoffrey P. Glasby, geologist, 2006</span></b><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;"><br />
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“It is generally recognized that the first pre-biotic organic molecules on earth and elsewhere in the solar system must have been formed by abiogenic reactions.” </span></i></b><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;">-- </span></i></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;">Barbara Sherwood Lollar, geologist/geochemist, 2006</span></b><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;"><br />
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<span style="font-size: x-large;"><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;">“Peak Oil theory is garbage as far as we’re concerned.” </span></i></b><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;">-- </span></i></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;">Robert W. Esser, geologist, 2006</span></b><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;"><br />
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“No one doubts that inorganic hydrocarbons may occur in association with hydrothermal systems.”</span></i></b><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;"> -- </span></i></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;">Michael D. Lewan, geologist, 2005</span></b></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: x-large;"><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;">“Abiogenic gasses are a clear fact. I can make them on the lab bench today.” </span></i></b><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;">-- </span></i></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;">Barbara Sherwood Lollar, geologist/geochemist, 2005</span></b></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: x-large;"><b style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;">“We’ve barely tapped, from the exploration point of view, the hydrocarbon potential that’s out there on this planet.” </span></i></b><b style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;">-- </span></i></b><b style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;">Stanley B. Keith, geologist, 2005</span></b><b style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;"><br />
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“The methane is not that strongly fractionated but they still think it might be biological. At Lost City, you can't figure out if it's biological or not by the isotopes.” </span></i></b><b style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;">-- </span></i></b><b style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;">James F. Kasting, geoscientist, 2005</span></b><b style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;"><br />
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“This methane cannot be coming from living organisms.” </span></i></b><b style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;">-- </span></i></b><b style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;">Jean-Pierre Lebreton, astrophysicist, 2005</span></b><b style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;"><br />
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“In Galey's words, the only geologist who can ever really tell where oil is to be found goes by the name of Dr. Drill.” </span></i></b><b style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;">-- </span></i></b><b style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;">Edwin Adkins, geologist, 2004</span></b><b style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;"><br />
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“An intriguing theory now permeating oil company research staffs suggests that crude oil may actually be a natural inorganic product, not a stepchild of unfathomable time and organic degradation. The theory suggests there may be huge, yet-to-be-discovered reserves of oil at depths that dwarf current world estimates.” </span></i></b><b style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;">-- </span></i></b><b style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;">Chris Bennett, environmental engineer, 2004</span></b></span><br />
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</span><span style="color: blue; font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: x-large; font-style: italic;"> “Hydrocarbons can be re-defined as a “renewable</span></span></b><span style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: blue; font-size: x-large;">” </span></i></b><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: blue;"><span style="font-size: x-large;">resource, rather than a finite one” (Gurney 1997).”</span> </span></i></b></span><b style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: xx-large;"><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;">-- </span></i></b><b style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: xx-large;"><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;">Peter R. Odell, economist/geologist, 2004</span></b></div>
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“Enormous implications follow from oil and gas being renewable resources.” </span></i></b><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;">-- </span></i></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;">Peter R. Odell, economist/geologist, 2004</span></b></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: x-large;"><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;">“Carbon fuels will dominate the 21st century's global energy economy.” </span></i></b><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;">-- </span></i></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;">Peter R. Odell, economist/geologist, 2004</span></b></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: x-large;"><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;">“We're dealing with this giant flow-through system where the hydrocarbons are generating now, moving through the overlying strata now, building the reservoirs now and spilling out into the ocean now.” </span></i></b><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;">-- </span></i></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;">Larry M. Cathles, geologist, 2003</span></b></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: x-large;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times, serif;"><span style="color: black; font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: x-large; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal;"><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;">“The subject of organic chemistry was wrongly taken by petroleum geologists long ago to mean chemistry of biologic origins. </span></i></b></span><span style="color: black; font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: x-large; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal;"><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;">You can still have a book of organic chemistry that has nothing to do with organisms at all.” </span></i></b></span><b style="color: black; font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif; font-style: normal;"><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;">-- </span></i></b><b style="color: black; font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif; font-style: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times, serif;"></span></b></span></span><br />
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<span style="font-size: x-large;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times, serif;"><b style="color: black; font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif; font-style: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times, serif;"><b style="color: black; font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif; font-style: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;">Thomas Gold,</span></b></span></b></span></span><b style="color: black; font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: xx-large; font-style: normal; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;"> astrophysicist, astronomer, cosmologist, geoscientist</span></b><span style="font-size: x-large;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times, serif;"><b style="color: black; font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif; font-style: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times, serif;"><b style="color: black; font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif; font-style: normal;"><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;">, 2002</span></b></span></b></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: x-large;"><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;"> <br />
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;"> “I don't think anybody's arguing that gas couldn't be generated from the mantle.” </span></span></i></b><b style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;">-- </span></i></b><b style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;">Barry J. Katz, geologist, 2002</span></b></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: x-large;"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;"><br />
<i>“I don't think anybody has ever doubted that there is an inorganic source of hydrocarbons.” </i></span></b><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;">-- </span></i></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;">Michael D. Lewan, geologist, 2002</span></b><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;"><br />
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“There has not been any 'debate' about the origin of hydrocarbons for over a century. Competent physicists, chemists, chemical engineers and men knowledgeable of thermodynamics have known that natural petroleum does not evolve from biological material since the last quarter of the 19th century.” </span></i></b><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;">-- </span></i></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;">Jack F. Kenney, geologist/geophysicist, 2002</span></b><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;"><br />
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“I do not know of any idea more likely to keep people impoverished than the idea that resources are natural, fixed, and finite.” </span></i></b><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;">-- </span></i></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;">Thomas R. DeGregori, economist, 2002</span></b></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: x-large;"><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;">“Natural petroleum has no connection with biological matter.” </span></i></b><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;">-- </span></i></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;">Jack F. Kenney, geologist/geophysicist, 2001</span></b><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;"><br />
</span></i></b></span><b style="font-size: xx-large;"><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;">“</span></i></b><span style="font-size: x-large;"><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;">Geoscientists are limited only by their imagination, innovation and determination. In the coming decades there will be tremendous strides made in petroleum geology, geophysics and petroleum engineering. The challenge for all of us – whether we are geologists, geophysicists, engineers, independent explorationists, or company or government explorationists – is to devise new concepts and skills to explore in areas considered to be out of the question or impossible.” </span></i></b><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;">-- </span></i></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;">Michel T. Halbouty, geologist, 2000</span><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;"> </span></i></b></span><br />
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<br />
<span style="font-size: x-large;"><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;">“These reservoirs are refilling with oil.” </span></i></b><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;">-- </span></i></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;">David Sibley, geologist, 1999</span></b><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;"> </span></i></b></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: x-large;"><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;">“In my view, hydrocarbons are not biology reworked by geology (as the traditional view would hold) but rather geology reworked by biology. In other words, hydrocarbons are primordial, but as they upwell into the earth's outer crust, microbial life invades.” </span></i></b><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;">-- </span></i></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;">Thomas Gold</span></b></span><b style="font-size: xx-large;"><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;">, astrophysicist, astronomer, cosmologist, geoscientist,</span></b></div>
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<span style="font-size: x-large;"><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;"><br />
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: x-large;"><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;">“Even though the biogenic origin theory leads to many inconsistencies, it is nevertheless now impossible in the Western world to conduct any research in petroleum geology that implies a questioning of this accepted position.” </span></i></b><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;">-- </span></i></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;">Thomas Gold, astrophysicist, astronomer, cosmologist, geoscientist, 1999</span></b></span></div>
<span style="font-size: x-large;"><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;"> <br />
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;"> “The problem with the finite-resource theory is nicely illustrated by recent trends in oil production. There are 6,784 trillion fewer barrels of oil in the ground today than there were in 1981, the year in which relative oil scarcity was greatest. At first glance, then, one might think that the natural resource base has deteriorated. Yet oil is relatively more abundant today than it was 17 years ago.” </span></span></i></b><b style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;">-- </span></i></b><b style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;">Jerry Taylor, political scientist, 1998</span></b><b style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;"><br />
<br />
“The industry will never run out of oil, not in 10,000 years. Some day, it may run out of customers. Every mineral industry is a perpetual tug-of-war, between diminishing returns and increasing knowledge.” </span></i></b><b style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;">-- </span></i></b><b style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;">Morris A. Adelman, economist, 1997</span></b><b style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;"><br />
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“Neither we, nor our grandchildren, nor their grandchildren will live to see the end of the oil era.”</span></i></b><b style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;"> -- </span></i></b><b style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;">Karl-Heinz Schult-Bornemann, geologist, 1997</span></b><b style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;"><br />
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“And why do they believe that commodities will grow more scarce? For many people, the idea that resources are finite is at the source of this belief. But the idea of finiteness is a prejudice and it is not supported by available facts. Incredible as it may seem, the term 'finite' is not only inappropriate, it is downright misleading when applied to natural resources.” </span></i></b><b style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;">-- </span></i></b><b style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;">Julian L. Simon, economist, 1997</span></b><b style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;"><br />
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“The modern Russian-Ukrainian theory of deep, abiotic petroleum origins is not controversial nor presently a matter of academic debate. The period of debate about this extensive body of knowledge has been over for approximately two decades (Simakov 1986).” </span></i></b><b style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;">-- </span></i></b><b style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;">Jack F. Kenney, geologist/geophysicist, 1996</span></b></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: x-large;"><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;"><br />
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: x-large;"><b style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;">“We now have in our hands—really, in our libraries—the technology to feed, clothe, and supply energy to an ever-growing population for the next seven billion years.” </span></i></b><b style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;">-- </span></i></b><b style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;">Julian L. Simon, economist, 1995</span></b><b style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;"><br />
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“As he [John Galey] once said, the only geologist who could tell with certainty whether oil would be found was “Dr. Drill.” </span></i></b><b style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;">-- </span></i></b><b style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;">Daniel Yergin, political scientist, 1992</span></b><b style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;"><br />
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“The great oil shortage is like the horizon, always receding as one moves toward it.” </span></i></b><b style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;">-- </span></i></b><b style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;">Morris A. Adelman, economist, 1991</span></b><b style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;"><br />
</span></i></b></span><br />
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: x-large;"><b style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;">“Stable carbon isotopes are not a reliable criterion for distinguishing biogenic from non-biogenic petroleum.” </span></i></b><b style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;">-- </span></i></b><b style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;">A.A. Giardini (geologist) and Charles E. Melton (chemist), 1991</span></b></span><br />
<span style="font-size: x-large;"><span lang="EN-US" style="color: blue;"><b style="color: black; font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;"><br />
</span></i></b></span></span><br />
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: x-large;"><b style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;">“... the fact that we find that oil and gas exist on the other planetary bodies, obviously not due to biology, is completely ignored.” </span></i></b><b style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;">--</span></i></b><b style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;">Thomas Gold, astronomer/astrophysicist/cosmologist /geoscientist, 1989</span></b></span></div>
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<b style="font-size: xx-large;"><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;">“</span></i></b><b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: x-large;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"><span lang="EN-US"><span lang="EN-US"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: blue; font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif; font-style: italic;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; text-align: left;">I know that most men, including those at ease with problems of the greatest complexity, can seldom accept even the simplest and most obvious truth, if it be such as would obliged them to admit the falsity of conclusions which they have delighted in explaining to colleagues, which they have proudly taught to others, and which they have woven, thread by thread, into the fabric</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; text-align: left;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; text-align: left;">of their lives.</span></span></span></span></span></span></b><b style="font-size: xx-large;"><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;">” </span></i></b><b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: x-large;"><span style="text-align: left;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times, serif;">-- </span></span><span style="text-align: left;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times, serif;">Thomas Gold, astronomer/astrophysicist/cosmologist /geoscientist, 1989</span></span></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-size: x-large;"><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;">“The assumption of fixed, finite natural resources has caused many to make catastrophic predictions of resource exhaustion. Fortunately, where these prophecies have been sufficiently specific to be testable, the passage of time and events has falsified them.” </span></i></b><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;">-- </span></i></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;">Thomas R. DeGregori, economist, 1987</span></b><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;"><br />
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<b style="font-size: xx-large;"><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;">“</span></i></b><span style="font-size: x-large;"><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;">Scientific consideration about the origin of hydrocarbons and practical results of geological investigations provide an understanding of the presence of enormous, inexhaustible resources of hydrocarbons.</span></i></b></span><b style="font-size: xx-large;"><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;">”</span></i></b><span style="font-size: x-large;"><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;"> </span></i></b><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;">-- </span></i></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;">Vladilen A. Krayushkin, geologist, 1986</span></b><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;"><br />
<br />
“Every ten or fifteen years since the late 1800’s, 'experts' have predicted that oil reserves would last only ten more years. These experts have predicted nine out of the last zero oil-reserve exhaustions.” </span></i></b><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;">-- </span></i></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;">Charles Maurice (economist) and Charles W. Smithson (economist), 1984</span></b><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;"><br />
<br />
“The general concept of petroleum formation by biogenic mechanisms has been firmly entrenched for a long time, but there has been no accumulation of convincing experimental evidence in support of this belief.” </span></i></b><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;">-- </span></i></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;">Charles E. Melton (chemist) and A.A. Giardini (geologist), 1983</span></b><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;"><br />
<br />
“The suggestion that petroleum might have arisen from some transformation of squashed fish or biological detritus is surely the silliest notion to have been entertained by substantial numbers of persons over an extended period of time.” </span></i></b><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;">-- </span></i></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;">Fred Hoyle, cosmologist/astrophysicist, 1982</span></b><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;"><br />
<br />
“I have gone to the best geologists and the best petroleum researchers, and I can give you the authoritative answer: No one knows [how biogenic origin is possible].” </span></i></b><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;">-- </span></i></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;">Edward Teller, physicist, 1979</span></b><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;"><br />
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“Next to nothing is known about the sources of the volatile components of magmas or how they are distributed and transported between the mantle and the shallow levels of the crust.” </span></i></b><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;">-- </span></i></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;">Howel Williams, geologist, 1979</span></b><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;"><br />
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“All giant oil fields are most logically explained by inorganic theory.” </span></i></b><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;">-- </span></i></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;">Vladimir B. Porfir'yev, geologist, 1974</span></b><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;"><br />
<br />
“Ideas are the life blood of the science of petroleum.” </span></i></b><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;">-- </span></i></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;">Hollis D. Hedberg, geologist, 1969</span></b></span></div>
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<div style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: x-large;"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;"><i><br />
“Statistical thermodynamic analysis has established clearly that hydrocarbon molecules which comprise petroleum require very high pressures for their spontaneous formation, comparable to the pressures required for the same of diamond. In that sense, hydrocarbon molecules are the high-pressure polymorphs of the reduced carbon system as is diamond of elemental carbon. Any notion which might suggest that hydrocarbon molecules spontaneously evolve in the regimes of temperature and pressure characterized by the near-surface of the Earth, which are the regimes of methane creation and hydrocarbon destruction, does not even deserve consideration.” </i></span></b><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;">-- </span></i></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;">Emmanuil B. Chekaliuk, geologist/physicist, 1968</span></b><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;"><br />
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“Geologists engaged in the search for oil and gas fields ought now to begin reappraising the facts at their disposal and analyzing them from positions of crustal fault tectonics.” </span></i></b><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;">-- </span></i></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;">Ivan I. Chebanenko, geologist, 1966</span></b><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;"><br />
<br />
“The geologist played a secondary role to geophysics and has been playing a secondary role for a long time--in fact, because geophysics has been doing the thinking for him, the cranial substance of the geologist has been under constant sedation for over 35 years.” </span></i></b><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;">-- </span></i></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;">Michel T. Halbouty, geologist, 1966</span></b><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;"><br />
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“This sad state of affairs has not been brought on by lack of undiscovered oil in the ground--it is the result of a drastic decline in the industry's effort to locate undiscovered oil in the United States.” </span></i></b><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;">-- </span></i></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;">Michel T. Halbouty, geologist, 1966</span></b></span><br />
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</span></i></b><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;">“It is remarkable that in spite of its widespread occurence, its great economic importance, and the immense amount of fine research devoted to it, there perhaps still remain more incertainties concerning the origin of petroleum than that of any other occurring natural substance.” </span></i></b><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;">-- </span></i></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;">H. D. Hedberg, 1964</span></b></span><br />
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<span style="font-size: x-large;"><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;"> “Actually it cannot be too strongly emphasized that petroleum does not present the composition picture expected from modified biogenic products, and all the arguments from the constituents of ancient oils fit equally well, or better, with the conception of a primordial hydrocarbon mixture to which bio-products have been added.” </span></i></b><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;">-- </span></i></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;">Sir Robert Robinson, chemist, 1963</span></b></span><br />
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<span style="font-size: x-large;"><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;">“Several times in the past we have thought we were running out of oil whereas actually we were only running out of ideas.” </span></i></b><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;">-- </span></i></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;">Parke A. Dickey, geologist, 1958</span></b><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;"><br />
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“The overwhelming preponderance of geological evidence compels the conclusion that crude oil and natural petroleum gas have no intrinsic connection with biological matter originating near the surface of the Earth. They are primordial materials which have been erupted from great depths.” </span></i></b><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;">-- </span></i></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;">Vladimir B. Porfir'yev, geologist, 1956</span></b></span></div>
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<i>“Oil is found in the minds of men.” </i></span></b><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;">-- </span></i></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;">Wallace E. Pratt, geologist, 1952</span></b><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;"> </span></i></b><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;"><br />
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“Oil is the creature of direct action of common earth forces on common earth materials.” </span></i></b><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;">-- </span></i></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;">Wallace E. Pratt, geologist, 1942</span></b></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: x-large;"><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;">“When in 1915 the driller of a 'wild-cat' well reported granite at 1100 feet, or so, right in the middle of the state [Kansas], we were not only skeptical; we were indignant. We denied that the well had granite; and when the driller, under our supervision, bailed out of the well fragments of beautiful pink granite, we charged that he had planted the granite in there himself.” </span></i></b><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;">-- </span></i></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;">Wallace E. Pratt, geologist, 1942</span></b><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;"><br />
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“Resources are not; they become.” </span></i></b><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;">-- </span></i></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;">Erich W. Zimmerman, economist, 1933</span></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;"> </span></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;"><br />
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“Frankly, there is no shortage of oil, simply a shortage of effort to get it out of the ground.” </i></span></b><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;">-- </span></i></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;">A.C. Bedford, geologist, 1917</span></b><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;"><br />
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“All the petroleum, natural gas, and bituminous fields or deposits cannot be regarded as anything else but the products of solfotaric volcanic emanations condensed and held in their passage upward in the porous tanks of all ages of the crust of the earth from the Archaean rocks to the Quaternary. Nothing is so simple and therefore nothing so natural as this origin, and we will see that it can be abundantly proven.” </span></i></b><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;">-- </span></i></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;">Eugene Coste, geologist, 1903</span></b></span></div>
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<i>“Only Dr. Drill knows for sure.” </i></span></b><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;">-- </span></i></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;">John H. Galey, geologist, date unknown</span></b><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;"> </span></i></b><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;"><br />
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“It is a singular and notable fact that, while most other branches of science have emancipated themselves from the trammels of metaphysical reasoning, the science of geology still remains imprisoned in 'a priori' theories.” </span></i></b><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;">-- </span></i></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;">Sir Henry H. Howorth, geologist, 1895</span></b><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;"><br />
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“It is obvious that the total amount of petroleum in the rocks underlying the surface ... is large beyond computation.” </span></i></b><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;">-- </span></i></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;">Edward Orton, geologist, 1888</span></b><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;"><br />
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“The origin of petroleum is unknown.” </span></i></b><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;">-- </span></i></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;">F.A. Genth, geologist, 1878</span></b><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;"> </span></i></b><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;"><br />
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“The capital fact to note is that petroleum was born in the depths of the Earth, and it is only there that we must seek its origin.” </span></i></b><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;">-- </span></i></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;">Dmitri Mendeleyev, chemist, 1877</span></b><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;"><br />
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“It may be supposed that naphta was produced by the action of water penetrating through the crevices of the strata during the upheaval of mountain chains because water with iron carbide ought to give iron oxide and hydrocarbons.” </span></i></b><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;">-- </span></i></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;">Dmitri Mendeleyev, chemist, 1877</span></b><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;"><br />
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“Whether naphta was formed by organic matter is very doubtful, as it is found in the most ancient Silurian [Ordovician] strata which correspond with the epochs of the earth's existence when there was very little organic matter; it could not penetrate from the higher to the lower (more ancient) strata as it floats on water (and water penetrates through all strata).” </span></i></b><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;">-- </span></i></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;">Dmitri Mendeleyev, chemist, 1877</span></b><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;"><br />
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“Do these fuels result always and necessarily in one way from the decomposition of a pre-existing organic substance? Is it thus with the hydrocarbons so frequently observed in volcanic eruptions and emanations, and to which M. Ch. Sainte-Claire Deville has called attention in recent years? Finally, must one assign a parralel origin to carbonaceous matter and to hydrocarbons contained in certain meteorites, and which appear to have an origin foreign to our planet? These are questions on which the opinion of many distinguished geologists does not as yet appear to be fixed.” </span></i></b><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;">-- </span></i></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;">Marcellin Berthelot, chemist, 1866</span></b><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;"><br />
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“One can, then, conceive the production, by purely mineral means, of all natural hydrocarbons. The intervention of heat, of water, and of alkaline metals -- lastly, the tendency of hydrocarbons to unite together to form the more condensed material -- suffice to account for the formation of these curious compounds. Moreover, this formation will be continuous because the reactions which started it are renewed incessantly.” </span></i></b><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;">-- </span></i></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;">Marcellin Berthelot, chemist, 1866</span></b><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;"><br />
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“The hydrogen gas evolved from volcanoes, or from chasms in the earth during earthquakes, is generally combined with sulphur or carbon; it is probably formed by the decompostion of water, when it finds access to subterranean fire.” </span></i></b><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;">-- </span></i></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;">Robert Bakewell, geologist, 1813</span></b><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;"><br />
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“Petroleum is the product of a distillation from great depth and issues from the primitive rocks beneath which the forces of all volcanic action lie.”</span></i></b><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;"> -- </span></i></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;">Alexander Von Humboldt, naturalist, 1804</span></b></span></div>
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<b style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: xx-large;"><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;">“</span></i></b><span style="font-size: x-large;"><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;">We cannot doubt of this distilling operation in the mineral regions, when we consider that in most places of the earth we find the evident effects of such distillation of oily substances in the naphta and petroleum that are constantly emitted along with water in certain springs. These oily substances are no other than such as may be procured, in a similar manner, from the fusible or inflammable coal strata; we have therefore every proof of this mineral operation that the nature of things admit of. We have also sufficient evidence that those fusible and inflammable coals, which have not been distilled to a caput mortuum, had been subjected to the operation of subterraneous heat, because we find those fusible coals subject to be injected with pyrites, as well as the more perfect coal.</span></i></b></span><b style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: xx-large;"><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;">”</span></i></b><b style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;"><span style="font-size: x-large;"> -- </span></span></i></b><b style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif; font-size: x-large;">James Hutton, naturalist, 1795</span></b><br />
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<span style="font-size: x-large;"><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;">“Rock oil originates as tiny bodies of animals buried in the sediments which,under the influence of increased temperature and pressure acting during an unimaginably long period of time, transform into rock oil.”</span></i></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;"> </span></b></span><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif; font-size: x-large;">-- </span><span style="font-size: x-large;"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;">Mikhail Lomonossov, Russian scholar scientist, 1757</span></b></span></div>
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“At this stage you must admit that whatever is seen to be sentient is nevertheless composed of atoms that are insentient. The phenomena open to our observation do not contradict this conclusion or conflict with it. Rather they lead us by the hand and compel us to believe that the animate is born, as I maintain, of the insentient.”</span></i></b><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;"> -- </span></i></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;">Titus Lucretius Carus, philosopher, 50 BC</span></b></span></div>
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</div>Geologisthttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03044199967329570135noreply@blogger.com4tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-32677820.post-62444156044705579402011-02-27T00:41:00.014-03:002012-10-27T21:50:21.843-02:00Frases sobre petróleo<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<b><span style="color: red; font-size: 28pt;">Frases sobre petróleo</span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> (Traduzidas para português) Fonte: Oil Quotes em http://oilismastery.blogspot.com/</span></b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"></span></div>
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"Suspiro. Por que as pessoas insistem em perpetuar o mito de que o petróleo vem de plantas e animais mortos? A origem abiogênica de produtos petrolíferos está bastante estabelecido, e observável em outros planetas, incapazes de suportar a vida, mas com grandes quantidades de metano "-. Jere Krischel de 2010<br />
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<span style="font-size: x-large; line-height: normal;"><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;">“Suspiro. Por que as pessoas insistem em perpetuar o mito de que o petróleo vem de plantas e animais mortos? A origem abiogênica de produtos petrolíferos está bastante estabelecida, e observável em outros planetas, incapazes de suportar vida, mas com grandes quantidades de metano.”</span></i></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times, serif;"> </span></b></span><b style="line-height: normal;"><span style="color: #383838; font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: x-large; line-height: 18px;"><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;">--</span></i></span></b><span style="line-height: normal;"> </span><span style="font-size: x-large; line-height: normal;"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times, serif;">Jere Krische, 2010</span></b></span><br />
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<span style="font-size: x-large; line-height: normal;"><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;">“A partir da análise de uma mancha de ketchup numa gravata não se pode concluir que a gravata seria feita a partir de tomates.”</span></i></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times, serif;"> </span></b></span><b style="line-height: normal;"><span style="color: #383838; font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: x-large; line-height: 18px;"><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;">--</span></i></span></b><span style="line-height: normal;"> </span><span style="font-size: x-large; line-height: normal;"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times, serif;">Peter Szatmari, geólogo</span></b></span><br />
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<span style="background-color: white; font-size: x-large;"><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;">“Novas idéias em ciência não são sempre certas apenas porque são novas. Nem as velhas idéias estão sempre erradas apenas porque elas são velhas. Essa atitude crítica é requerida para todo o cientista.”</span></i></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times, serif;"> </span></b></span><b style="background-color: white;"><span style="color: #383838; font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: x-large; line-height: 18px;"><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;">--</span></i></span></b><span style="background-color: white;"> </span><span style="background-color: white; font-size: x-large;"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times, serif;">Thomas Gold, astrofísico, astrônomo, cosmologista e geocientista</span></b></span><br />
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<span style="background-color: white; font-size: x-large;"><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;">“Duas coisas são infinitas: o universo e a estupidez humana; e eu não tenho dúvidas quanto ao universo.”</span></i></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times, serif;"> </span></b></span><b style="background-color: white;"><span style="color: #383838; font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: x-large; line-height: 18px;"><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;">--</span></i></span></b><span style="background-color: white;"> </span><b style="color: #383838; font-family: Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif; font-size: 13px;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times, serif; font-size: x-large;">Albert Einstein, físico, cosmologista</span></b><br />
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif; text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: x-large;"><b style="background-color: white; color: #383838;"><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: blue;">“</span></i></b></span></span><b style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: blue; font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: x-large;"><i><span class="hps" style="background-color: whitesmoke; text-align: -webkit-auto;">O que</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: whitesmoke;"> </span><span class="hps" style="background-color: whitesmoke; text-align: -webkit-auto;">eles estão</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: whitesmoke; text-align: -webkit-auto;"> </span><span class="hps" style="background-color: whitesmoke; text-align: -webkit-auto;">nos ensinando</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: whitesmoke; text-align: -webkit-auto;"> </span><span class="hps" style="background-color: whitesmoke; text-align: -webkit-auto;">na escola</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: whitesmoke; text-align: -webkit-auto;"> </span><span class="hps" style="background-color: whitesmoke; text-align: -webkit-auto;">sobre o petróleo</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: whitesmoke; text-align: -webkit-auto;"> </span><span class="hps" style="background-color: whitesmoke; text-align: -webkit-auto;">proveniente de</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: whitesmoke; text-align: -webkit-auto;"> </span><span class="hps" style="background-color: whitesmoke; text-align: -webkit-auto;">fósseis</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: whitesmoke; text-align: -webkit-auto;"> </span><span class="hps" style="background-color: whitesmoke; text-align: -webkit-auto;">está errado</span></i></span></b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif; text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: x-large;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; color: #383838; line-height: 18px;"><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: blue;"><b>.</b></span></i></span><b style="background-color: white; color: #383838;"><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: blue;">”</span></i></b></span><b style="background-color: white; color: #383838; font-size: xx-large;"><span lang="EN-US" style="color: blue;"> </span></b></span><b style="text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times, serif; font-size: x-large;">– C. Warren Hunt, geólogo, 2011</span></b><br />
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<span style="font-size: x-large;"><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;">“Embora o modelo biogênico, orgânico tenha sido geralmente aceito pela indústria do petróleo quase desde seu nascimento, modelos inorgânicos recorrentemente emergem, propostos por geólogos e, mais frequentemente, químicos.”</span></i></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times, serif;"> </span></b></span>
<b><span style="background-color: white; color: #383838; font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: x-large; line-height: 18px;"><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;">--</span></i></span></b> <span style="font-size: x-large;"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times, serif;">Peter Szatmari, geólogo, 2011</span></b></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: x-large;"><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;">“O mundo é pleno de recursos - a questão é como nós podemos aplicar a tecnologia para torná-los energia.</span></i></b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times, serif;"><b><span style="color: blue;">” </span></b></span></i><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;">-- </span></i></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times, serif;">Robert Ryan, E&P manager, 2009</span></b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times, serif;"><b><span style="color: blue;"> </span></b></span></i></span><br />
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</span></i></b></span><br />
<b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: blue; font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: x-large;"><i><span class="hps" style="background-color: whitesmoke; text-align: -webkit-auto;"><span style="text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US">“</span></span>Evidências teóricas</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: whitesmoke;"> </span><span class="hps" style="background-color: whitesmoke; text-align: -webkit-auto;">e experimentais</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: whitesmoke; text-align: -webkit-auto;"> </span><span class="hps" style="background-color: whitesmoke; text-align: -webkit-auto;">recentes demonstram</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: whitesmoke; text-align: -webkit-auto;"> </span><span class="hps" style="background-color: whitesmoke; text-align: -webkit-auto;">a possibilidade de que</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: whitesmoke; text-align: -webkit-auto;"> </span><span class="hps" style="background-color: whitesmoke; text-align: -webkit-auto;">os hidrocarbonetos</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: whitesmoke; text-align: -webkit-auto;"> </span><span class="hps" style="background-color: whitesmoke; text-align: -webkit-auto;">podem ter se formado</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: whitesmoke; text-align: -webkit-auto;"> </span><span class="hps" style="background-color: whitesmoke; text-align: -webkit-auto;">nas profundezas</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: whitesmoke; text-align: -webkit-auto;"> </span><span class="hps" style="background-color: whitesmoke; text-align: -webkit-auto;">da terra.</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: whitesmoke; text-align: -webkit-auto;"> </span><span class="hps" style="background-color: whitesmoke; text-align: -webkit-auto;">Se a teoria</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: whitesmoke; text-align: -webkit-auto;"> </span><span class="hps" style="background-color: whitesmoke; text-align: -webkit-auto;">é</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: whitesmoke; text-align: -webkit-auto;"> </span><span class="hps" style="background-color: whitesmoke; text-align: -webkit-auto;">fundamentada</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: whitesmoke; text-align: -webkit-auto;"> </span><span class="hps" style="background-color: whitesmoke; text-align: -webkit-auto;">futuramente</span><span style="background-color: whitesmoke; text-align: -webkit-auto;">, então a depleção do petróleo</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: whitesmoke; text-align: -webkit-auto;"> </span><span class="hps" style="background-color: whitesmoke; text-align: -webkit-auto;">torna-se</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: whitesmoke; text-align: -webkit-auto;"> </span><span class="hps" style="background-color: whitesmoke; text-align: -webkit-auto;">um mito</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: whitesmoke; text-align: -webkit-auto;"> </span><span class="hps" style="background-color: whitesmoke; text-align: -webkit-auto;">e a indústria</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: whitesmoke; text-align: -webkit-auto;"> </span><span class="hps" style="background-color: whitesmoke; text-align: -webkit-auto;">deve estar pronta para</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: whitesmoke; text-align: -webkit-auto;"> </span><span class="hps" style="background-color: whitesmoke; text-align: -webkit-auto;">enfrentar os novos desafios</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: whitesmoke; text-align: -webkit-auto;"> </span><span class="hps" style="background-color: whitesmoke; text-align: -webkit-auto;">de perfuração</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: whitesmoke; text-align: -webkit-auto;"> </span><span class="hps" style="background-color: whitesmoke; text-align: -webkit-auto;">mais profunda</span><span class="" style="background-color: whitesmoke; text-align: -webkit-auto;">,</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: whitesmoke; text-align: -webkit-auto;"> </span><span class="hps" style="background-color: whitesmoke; text-align: -webkit-auto;">para as rochas</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: whitesmoke; text-align: -webkit-auto;"> </span><span class="hps" style="background-color: whitesmoke; text-align: -webkit-auto;">do embasamento, onde</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: whitesmoke; text-align: -webkit-auto;"> </span><span class="hps" style="background-color: whitesmoke; text-align: -webkit-auto;">enormes</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: whitesmoke; text-align: -webkit-auto;"> </span><span class="hps" style="background-color: whitesmoke; text-align: -webkit-auto;">campos de petróleo</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: whitesmoke; text-align: -webkit-auto;"> </span><span class="hps" style="background-color: whitesmoke; text-align: -webkit-auto;">podem estar à espera</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: whitesmoke; text-align: -webkit-auto;"> </span><span class="hps" style="background-color: whitesmoke; text-align: -webkit-auto;">para serem descobertos</span><span style="background-color: whitesmoke; text-align: -webkit-auto;">, como</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: whitesmoke; text-align: -webkit-auto;"> o Campo de </span><span class="hps" style="background-color: whitesmoke; text-align: -webkit-auto;">White Tiger</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: whitesmoke; text-align: -webkit-auto;"> </span><span class="hps" style="background-color: whitesmoke; text-align: -webkit-auto;">no Vietnã</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: whitesmoke; text-align: -webkit-auto;"> </span><span class="hps" style="background-color: whitesmoke; text-align: -webkit-auto;">provou</span><span class="" style="background-color: whitesmoke; text-align: -webkit-auto;">. </span></i></span></b><i><span lang="EN-US"><b><span style="color: blue;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: x-large;">”</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Times, serif; font-size: x-large;"> </span></span></b></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: x-large;"><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black;">-- </span></i></b><b><span lang="EN-US">V.C. Kelessidis, Setembro de 2009.</span></b></span><br />
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<span style="font-size: x-large;"><b><i><span style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;">“Não há dúvida de que nossa pesquisa prova que o petróleo e o gás natural são produzidos sem o envolvimento de fósseis. </span></i></b><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;">Todos os tipos de rochas podem servir como reservatórios de petróleo.”</span></i></b></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: x-large;"> </span><span style="font-size: x-large;"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times, serif;">- Vladimir A. Kutcherov, geólogo, físico, Setembro de 2009</span></b></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: x-large;"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times, serif;"><br />
</span></b></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: x-large;"> </span><span style="font-size: x-large;"><b><i><span style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;">“... O nosso planeta pode ter enormes recursos inesgotáveis de hidrocarbonetos.” </span></i></b><b><span style="font-family: Times, serif;">- Vladimir A. Kutcherov, geólogo, físico agosto de 2009</span></b></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: x-large;"><b><i><span style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;"> <br />
“Nós demonstramos a transformação química do metano para hidrocarbonetos saturados mais pesados, como etano, butano e propano e sua reversibilidade, nas condições do manto superior do da Terra.” </span></i></b><b><span style="font-family: Times, serif;">- Alexander Goncharov, geólogo, agosto de 2009</span></b></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: x-large;"><b><i><span style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;"><br />
“Todas as províncias de petróleo e gás no mundo estão aparentemente associadas com condições tectônicas transtensivas, apoiando a teoria abiogênica de petróleo.” </span></i></b><b><span style="font-family: Times, serif;">- Karsten M. Storetvedt, geofísico, agosto de 2008</span></b></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: x-large;"><b><i><span style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;"><br />
“A moderna teoria do petróleo abiótico de origem profunda reconhece que o petróleo é um material primordial de origem profunda que emana na crosta da Terra. Em suma, o petróleo não é um “combustível fóssil” e não tem nenhuma conexão intrínseca com quaisquer detritos biológicos presentes nos </span></i></b><b><i><span style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;">“</span></i></b><b><i><span style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;">sedimentos</span></i></b><b><i><span style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;">”</span></i></b><b><i><span style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;">.” </span></i></b><b><span style="font-family: Times, serif;">- Vladimir A. Kutcherov, geólogo, físico, agosto de 2008</span></b></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: x-large;"><b><i><span style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;"><br />
“Poços ultra profundos trazem uma gama de imprevisibilidades - basicamente uma mudança de pontos de vista das estruturas e dos processos geoquímicos na Terra.”</span></i></b><b><span style="font-family: Times, serif;"> - Yuri Galant, geólogo, agosto de 2008</span></b></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: x-large;"><b><i><span style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;"><br />
“É pelo menos plausível que o óleo de 3,2 bilhões anos de idade que encontramos de fato tem uma origem abiótica.” </span></i></b><b><span style="font-family: Times, serif;">- Roger Buick, astrobiólogo / Geociências, julho de 2008</span></b></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: x-large;"><b><i><span style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;"><br />
“Nossos resultados mostram que a síntese abiótica de hidrocarbonetos na natureza pode ocorrer na presença de rochas ultramáficas, água e quantidades moderadas de calor.” </span></i></b><b><span style="font-family: Times, serif;">- Giora K. Proskurowski, geoquímico / oceanógrafo, Fevereiro de 2008</span></b></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: x-large;"><b><i><span style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;"><br />
“Cinco proposições em Geologia, ou seja, Tectônica de Placas, o tamanho constante da Terra, o calor motor Terra, a repercussão elástica, e a origem orgânica das reservas de hidrocarbonetos são desafiados como mitos, porque a sua verdade potencial não é confirmada pela observação, e/ou experiência, e/ou Lógica. Em seu lugar o Excess Mass Stress Tectonics – EMST, ou seja, um sólido quantificado, crescimento e radiação da Terra e suas implicações, tais como a origem inorgânica dos Hidrocarbonetos, afirma ser uma proposição abrangente e compreensiva.” </span></i></b><b><span style="font-family: Times, serif;">- Stavros T. Tassos, sismólogo / geocientista, Novembro de 2007<br />
<i><span style="color: blue;"><br />
“No contexto de Excess Mass Stress Tectonics - EMST, os hidrocarbonetos são fontes de energia produzida abioticamente através de um processo no qual o hidrogênio e carbono, mas também de oxigênio, nitrogênio, enxofre e oligoelementos sendo formados no núcleo da Terra, ascendem através de trilhas fratura radial do sólido e frio manto para a superfície da Terra. Se sua ascensão é bloqueada formam compostos maiores, por exemplo, querogênio, que pode transformar pelo calor radiante nos 5 km superiores ou então do interior da Terra, em petróleo, gás e carvão, em temperaturas abaixo de <200, 100-50, e <50º C, respectivamente. Na ausência de trapeamento e/ou acima de 200° C, a temperatura na qual as porfirinas são destruídas, eles são liberados como gás metano, assim como em Titã, hoje, e/ou são totalmente oxidados a CO</span></i></span></b></span><span style="font-size: x-large;"><b><i><sub><span lang="EN-US" style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;">2</span></sub></i></b><b><span style="font-family: Times, serif;"><i><span style="color: blue;"> e H</span></i></span></b></span><span style="font-size: x-large;"><b><i><sub><span lang="EN-US" style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;">2</span></sub></i></b><b><span style="font-family: Times, serif;"><i><span style="color: blue;">O. Reservas de petróleo e gás nas bacias maduras adjacentes aos escudos pré-cambrianos deformados e plataformas, principalmente durante os últimos 200 milhões de anos, quando os oceanos largos e profundos e um complexo padrão de soerguimentos e bacias sedimentares desenvolveram, proporcionando assim os reservatórios e as armadilhas estruturais e/ou estratigráficas. Eles associam com a atividade sísmica e vulcânica moderadas, gravidade ar-livre, geoidal, e as anomalias de fluxo de calor, e grandes províncias ígneas, ou seja, Excess Mass Stress Tectonics - EMST.” </span></i>- Stavros T. Tassos, sismólogo / geocientista, Novembro de 2007<br />
<i><span style="color: blue;"><br />
“O artigo apresenta uma visão de Expansão em oposição a Tectônica de Placas. Sobreposição de campo de óleo e gás nestas zonas visualizadas de espalhamento pode bem indicar novas áreas para descobertas de petróleo e gás para um profissional.” </span></i>- Keith P. Wilson, geólogo, Novembro de 2007</span></b></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: x-large;"><b><i><span style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;"><br />
“A distribuição elementar do petróleo bruto de todos os depósitos estudados não coincide com o de qualquer rocha conhecida da crosta terrestre.” </span></i></b><b><span style="font-family: Times, serif;">- Kirill S. Ivanov, geólogo / geoquímico, Novembro de 2007</span></b></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: x-large;"><b><i><span style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;"><br />
“Geralmente, na ciência, sempre que novos avanços são feitos, idéias antigas devem ser re-examinadas à luz dos avanços. No caso da origem</span></i></b><i><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"> </span></i><b><i><span style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;">abiótica de gás natural e petróleo, que é especialmente verdade, como os avanços relativos aos processos operantes durante a formação do sistema solar, e para a composição e dinâmica do planeta Terra, tudo parece melhorar muito o prognóstico para os recursos abióticos.”</span></i></b><b><span style="font-family: Times, serif;"> - Marvin J. Herndon, geofísico, Setembro de 2006</span></b></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: x-large;"><b><i><span style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;"><br />
“A formação de hidrocarbonetos mais pesados nas camadas superiores da crosta terrestre ocorre somente como resultado de reações do tipo Fischer-Tropsch, na presença de gás hidrogênio, mas não seria possível por razões termodinâmicas.” </span></i></b><b><span style="font-family: Times, serif;">- Geoffrey P. Glasby, geólogo, 2006</span></b></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: x-large;"><b><i><span style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;"><br />
“Exemplos da ocorrência de hidrocarbonetos derivados abiogeneticamente têm sido registradas.”</span></i></b><b><span style="font-family: Times, serif;"> - Geoffrey P. Glasby, geólogo, 2006</span></b></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: x-large;"><b><i><span style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;"><br />
“É possível converter o metano em uma mistura complexa de alcanos e alcenos longos a altas pressões e temperaturas, mas não de carboidratos, os blocos fundamentais de construção de plantas.” </span></i></b><b><span style="font-family: Times, serif;">- Geoffrey P. Glasby, geólogo, 2006</span></b></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: x-large;"><b><i><span style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;"><br />
“É geralmente reconhecido que as primeiras moléculas orgânicas pré-bióticas na Terra e em outros lugares do sistema solar devem ter sido formadas por reações abiogênicas.” </span></i></b><b><span style="font-family: Times, serif;">- Barbara Sherwood Lollar, geoquímico geólogo, 2006</span></b></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: x-large;"><b><i><span style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;"><br />
“Teoria do pico do petróleo (peak oil) é um lixo, tanto quanto nossa preocupação com isso.” </span></i></b><b><span style="font-family: Times, serif;">- Robert W. Esser, geólogo, 2006<br />
<i><span style="color: blue;"><br />
“Ninguém duvida que os hidrocarbonetos inorgânicos possam ocorrer em associação com sistemas hidrotermais.” </span></i>- Michael D. Lewan, geólogo, 2005</span></b></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: x-large;"><b><i><span style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;"><br />
“Gases abiogênicos são um fato claro. Posso fazê-los na bancada do laboratório hoje.” </span></i></b><b><span style="font-family: Times, serif;">- Barbara Sherwood Lollar, geoquímico geólogo / 2005</span></b></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: x-large;"><b><i><span style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;"><br />
“Nós mal aproveitamos, do ponto de vista de exploração, o potencial de hidrocarboneto que está lá fora deste planeta.” </span></i></b><b><span style="font-family: Times, serif;">- Stanley B. Keith, geólogo, 2005<i><span style="color: blue;"><br />
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“O metano não é tão fortemente fracionado, mas ainda acham que pode ser biológico. Em Lost City, você não consegue descobrir se é biológico ou não pelos isótopos.” </span></i>- James F. Kasting, Geociências, 2005</span></b></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: x-large;"><b><i><span style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;"><br />
“Esse metano não pode ser proveniente de organismos vivos.” </span></i></b><b><span style="font-family: Times, serif;">- Jean-Pierre Lebreton, o astrofísico, 2005</span></b></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: x-large;"><b><i><span style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;"><br />
“Nas palavras de Galey, o único geólogo que pode mesmo realmente dizer de onde o óleo está para ser encontrado, ele atende pelo nome de “ Dr. Broca.”</span></i></b><b><span style="font-family: Times, serif;"> - Edwin Adkins, geólogo, 2004</span></b></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: x-large;"><b><i><span style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;"><br />
“Uma teoria intrigante agora permeia as equipes de pesquisa das companhias de petróleo sugere que o petróleo pode realmente ser um produto natural inorgânico, e não um enteado de tempo insondável e degradação biológica. A teoria sugere que podem ser enormes, ainda a serem descobertas reservas de petróleo em profundidades e que as estimativas mundiais atuais são anãs.” </span></i></b><b><span style="font-family: Times, serif;">- Chris Bennett, engenheiro ambiental, 2004<br />
<i><span style="color: blue;"><br />
</span></i></span></b><b><i><span style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;">“</span></i></b><b><span style="font-family: Times, serif;"><i><span style="color: blue;">Os hidrocarbonetos podem ser re-definidos como um” recurso renovável, ao invés de finito “(Gurney, 1997)</span></i></span></b><b><i><span style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;">”.</span></i></b><b><i><span style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;">”</span></i></b><b><span style="font-family: Times, serif;"><i><span style="color: blue;"> </span></i>- Peter R. Odell, economista / geólogo, 2004</span></b></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: x-large;"><b><i><span style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;"><br />
“Enormes implicações decorrem do fato do petróleo e gás sendo recursos renováveis.” </span></i></b><b><span style="font-family: Times, serif;">- Peter R. Odell, geólogo economista, 2004</span></b></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: x-large;"><b><i><span style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;"><br />
“Combustíveis de carbono vão dominar a economia da energia global do século XXI.” </span></i></b><b><span style="font-family: Times, serif;">- Peter R. Odell, geólogo economista, 2004</span></b></span></div>
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“Estamos lidando com este gigante de fluxo através do sistema, onde os hidrocarbonetos estão gerando agora, movendo-se através dos estratos que os cobrem agora, a formação dos reservatórios agora e derramamento no oceano agora.” </span></i></b><b><span style="font-family: Times, serif;">- Larry M. Cathles, geólogo, 2003</span></b></span></div>
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“O tema da química orgânica foi erroneamente tomada pelos geólogos de petróleo há muito tempo para se referir a química de origem biológica. Você ainda pode ter um livro de química orgânica que nada tem a ver com os organismos em um todo.” </span></i></b><b><span style="font-family: Times, serif;">- Thomas Gold, astrofísico/astrônomo/cosmólogo/geocientista, 2002</span></b></span></div>
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“Eu não acho que ninguém está argumentando que o gás não poderia ser gerado a partir do manto.” </span></i></b><b><span style="font-family: Times, serif;">- Barry J. Katz, geólogo, 2002</span></b></span></div>
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“Eu não acho que ninguém jamais duvidou de que há uma fonte inorgânica de hidrocarbonetos.” </span></i></b><b><span style="font-family: Times, serif;">- Michael D. Lewan, geólogo, 2002</span></b></span></div>
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“Não houve qualquer tipo de” debate “sobre a origem de hidrocarbonetos por mais de um século. Competentes físicos, químicos, engenheiros químicos e os homens conhecedores da termodinâmica sabem que o petróleo natural não evolui a partir de material biológico, desde o último quarto do século XIX.” </span></i></b><b><span style="font-family: Times, serif;">- Jack F. Kenney, geólogo geofísico, 2002</span></b></span></div>
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“Eu não sei de qualquer idéia mais provável para manter as pessoas pobres do que a idéia de que os recursos são naturais, fixos e finitos.” </span></i></b><b><span style="font-family: Times, serif;">- Thomas R. Degregori, economista, 2002</span></b></span></div>
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“O petróleo natural não tem nenhuma ligação com a matéria biológica.” </span></i></b><b><span style="font-family: Times, serif;">- Jack F. Kenney, geólogo geofísico, 2001</span></b></span></div>
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“Os geocientistas são limitados apenas pela sua imaginação, inovação e determinação. Nas próximas décadas, haverá grandes avanços feitos na geologia, na geofísica e na engenharia de petróleo. O desafio para todos nós - enquanto geólogos, geofísicos, engenheiros, exploracionistas independentes, empresa ou governos exploracionistas - é a elaboração de novos conceitos e habilidades para explorar em áreas consideradas fora de questão, ou mesmo impossíveis.” </span></i></b><b><span style="font-family: Times, serif;">- Michel T. Halbouty, geólogo, 2000</span></b></span></div>
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“Esses reservatórios estão se reabastecendo com óleo.” </span></i></b><b><span style="font-family: Times, serif;">- David Sibley, geólogo, 1999</span></b></span><br />
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<span style="font-size: x-large;"><b><i><span style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;"> “Na minha visão, os hidrocarbonetos não são biologia retrabalhada por geologia (como a visão tradicional poderia sustentar), mas certamente geologia retrabalhada por biologia. Em outras palavras, os hidrocarbonetos são primordiais, mas como eles emanam do interior da Terra para a crosta externa, a vida microbial os invade.”</span></i></b><b><span style="font-family: Times, serif;"> - Thomas Gold, astrofísico/astrônomo/cosmólogo/geocientista, 1999</span></b></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: x-large;"><b><i><span style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;">“</span></i></b><b><i><span style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;">Mesmo que a teoria da origem biogênica leve a muitas inconsistências é, no entanto agora impossível, no mundo ocidental, de realizar uma pesquisa em geologia do petróleo que implique um questionamento aceito desta posição.”</span></i></b><b><span style="font-family: Times, serif;"> - Thomas Gold, astrofísico/astrônomo/cosmólogo/geocientista, 1999</span></b></span></div>
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“O problema com a teoria de recursos finitos é muito bem ilustrado pelas tendências recentes na produção de petróleo. Há menos 6.784 trilhões de barris de petróleo no subsolo hoje do que havia em 1981, ano em que a escassez do petróleo em relação era maior. À primeira vista, então, pode-se pensar que a base de recursos naturais tem se deteriorado. Mas o petróleo é relativamente mais abundante hoje do que era há 17 anos.” </span></i></b><b><span style="font-family: Times, serif;">- Jerry Taylor, cientista político, 1998</span></b></span></div>
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“A indústria nunca vai ficar sem petróleo, não em 10 mil anos. Algum dia, ele pode ficar sem clientes. Cada setor mineral é um eterno cabo-de-guerra, entre retornos decrescentes e aumento do conhecimento.” </span></i></b><b><span style="font-family: Times, serif;">- A. Morris Adelman, economista, 1997</span></b></span></div>
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“Nem nós, nem nossos netos, nem os netos viverão para ver o fim da era do petróleo.” </span></i></b><b><span style="font-family: Times, serif;">- Karl-Heinz Schult-Bornemann, geólogo, 1997</span></b></span></div>
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“E por que eles acreditam que as commodities vão crescer mais escassas? Para muitas pessoas, a idéia de que os recursos são finitos está na origem dessa crença. Mas a idéia de finitude é um preconceito e não é apoiada por dados disponíveis. Incrível como que possa parecer, o termo 'finito' não só é inadequado, é francamente enganador quando aplicado aos recursos naturais.” </span></i></b><b><span style="font-family: Times, serif;">- Julian L. Simon, economista, 1997</span></b></span></div>
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“A moderna teoria russo-ucraniana da origem do petróleo profundo e abiótico não é controversa, nem atualmente, uma questão de debate acadêmico. O período de debate sobre o extenso corpo de conhecimento tem sido ao longo de aproximadamente duas décadas (Simakov 1986).” </span></i></b><b><span style="font-family: Times, serif;">- Jack F. Kenney, geólogo geofísico / 1996</span></b></span></div>
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“Agora temos em nossas mãos, realmente, em nossas bibliotecas, a tecnologia para alimentar, vestir e fornecer energia a uma população cada vez maior para os próximos sete bilhões de anos.” </span></i></b><b><span style="font-family: Times, serif;">- Julian L. Simon, economista, 1995</span></b></span></div>
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“Como ele [João Galey] disse uma vez, o único geólogo que poderia dizer com certeza onde o óleo seria encontrado foi o “Dr. Broca”.” </span></i></b><b><span style="font-family: Times, serif;">- Daniel Yergin, cientista político, 1992</span></b></span></div>
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“A grande escassez de petróleo é como o horizonte, sempre recuando quando alguém se move em direção a ele.” </span></i></b><b><span style="font-family: Times, serif;">- A. Morris Adelman, economista, 1991</span></b></span></div>
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“Isótopos estáveis de carbono não são um critério seguro para distinguir petróleo biogênico do não-biogênico.” </span></i></b><b><span style="font-family: Times, serif;">- A.A. Giardini (geólogo) e Charles E. Melton (químico), 1991</span></b></span></div>
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“... O fato de que nós acharmos que existe petróleo e gás nos outros corpos planetários, obviamente não devido à biologia, é completamente ignorada.” </span></i></b><b><span style="font-family: Times, serif;">- Thomas Gold, astrofísico/astrônomo/cosmólogo/geocientista, 1989</span></b></span></div>
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“A suposição de fixo, do esgotamento dos recursos naturais tem implicado em muitos a fazer previsões catastróficas de exaustão de recursos. Felizmente, sempre que estas profecias foram suficientemente específicas para serem testadas, a passagem do tempo e dos acontecimentos as falsificaram.” </span></i></b><b><span style="font-family: Times, serif;">- Thomas R. Degregori, economista, 1987</span></b></span></div>
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“Os estudos científicos sobre a origem dos hidrocarbonetos e os resultados práticos das investigações geológicas proporcionaram uma compreensão da presença de enormes recursos inesgotáveis de hidrocarbonetos.” </span></i></b><b><span style="font-family: Times, serif;">- Vladilen A. Krayushkin, geólogo, 1986</span></b></span></div>
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“Cada dez ou quinze anos desde o final de 1800,” especialistas “que previram que as reservas de petróleo durariam apenas 10 anos mais. Estes especialistas previram que das nove das últimas, zero esgotamentos de reservas de petróleo ocorreram.” </span></i></b><b><span style="font-family: Times, serif;">- Charles Maurice (economista) e Charles W. Smithson (economista), 1984</span></b></span></div>
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</span></i></b><b><i><span style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;">“</span></i></b><b><i><span style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;">O conceito geral de formação de petróleo por mecanismos biogênicos esteve firmemente entrincheirado por um longo tempo, mas não houve acúmulo de evidências experimentais convincentes em apoio dessa crença.” </span></i></b><b><span style="font-family: Times, serif;">- Charles E. Melton (químico) e A.A. Giardini (geólogo), 1983</span></b></span></div>
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“A sugestão que o petróleo poderia ter surgido de alguma transformação de peixes esmagados ou detritos biológicos é, seguramente, a mais ridícula noção que tem sido entretida por um número substancial de pessoas durante um prolongado </span></i></b><b><i><span style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;">período </span></i></b><b><i><span style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;">de tempo.” </span></i></b><b><span style="font-family: Times, serif;">- Fred Hoyle, astrofísico, 1982</span></b></span></div>
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“Eu tenho perguntado para os melhores geólogos e pesquisadores de petróleo, e posso lhe dar a resposta oficial: Ninguém sabe [como é possível origem biogênica].” </span></i></b><b><span style="font-family: Times, serif;">- Edward Teller, físico, 1979</span></b></span></div>
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“Quase nada se sabe sobre as fontes dos componentes voláteis do magma ou como eles são distribuídos e transportados entre o manto e os níveis rasos da crosta.” </span></i></b><b><span style="font-family: Times, serif;">- Howel Williams, geólogo, 1979</span></b></span></div>
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“Todos os campos gigantes de petróleo são mais logicamente explicados pela teoria inorgânica.” </span></i></b><b><span style="font-family: Times, serif;">- Vladimir B. Porfir'ev, geólogo, 1974</span></b></span></div>
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“Idéias são o sangue da vida da ciência do petróleo.” </span></i></b><b><span style="font-family: Times, serif;">- Hollis D. Hedberg, geólogo, 1969<br />
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</span></i></span></b><b><i><span style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;">“</span></i></b><b><span style="font-family: Times, serif;"><i><span style="color: blue;">A análise estatística termodinâmica demonstrou claramente que as moléculas de hidrocarbonetos que compõem o petróleo exigem pressões muito altas para a sua formação espontânea, comparáveis à mesma pressão necessária para o diamante. Nesse sentido, as moléculas de hidrocarbonetos são os polimorfos de alta pressão do sistema de redução de carbono como é o diamante de carbono elementar. Qualquer noção de que pode sugerir que as moléculas de hidrocarbonetos evoluem espontaneamente nos regimes de temperatura e pressão caracterizam-se pela próxima à superfície da Terra, que são os regimes de criação e destruição do metano dos hidrocarbonetos, nem sequer merecem consideração.” </span></i>- Emmanuil B. Chekaliuk, geólogo, 1968</span></b></span></div>
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“Os geólogos envolvidos na prospecção de petróleo e gás devem agora começar a reavaliar os fatos à sua disposição e analisá-los a partir de posições de falhas tectônicas crustais.” </span></i></b><b><span style="font-family: Times, serif;">- Ivan I. Chebanenko, geólogo, 1966</span></b></span></div>
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“O geólogo desempenhou um papel secundário à geofísica e tem desempenhado um papel secundário por muito tempo - na verdade, porque geofísica vem fazendo o pensamento para ele, a substância do crânio do geólogo esteve sob sedação constante por mais de 35 anos.”</span></i></b><b><span style="font-family: Times, serif;"> - Michel T. Halbouty, geólogo, 1966<br />
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“Este triste estado de coisas não tem sido provocada pela falta de petróleo descoberto no chão. - É o resultado de uma redução drástica do esforço da indústria para encontrar petróleo ainda não descoberto nos Estados Unidos.”</span></i> - Michel T. Halbouty, geólogo, 1966</span></b></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: x-large;"><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;">“É notável que apesar de sua ocorrência generalizada, sua grande importância econômica, e a imensa quantidade de pesquisa de ponta, dedicada a ele, talvez hajam mais incertezas sobre a origem do petróleo do que qualquer outra substância de ocorrência natural.” </span></i></b><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;">-- </span></i></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="color: black; font-family: Times, serif;">H. D. Hedberg, 1964</span></b><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;"><br />
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“Várias vezes no passado, nós pensamos que estávamos ficando sem petróleo considerando que, na verdade estávamos apenas conduzidos para fora das idéias.”</span></i></b><b><span style="font-family: Times, serif;"> - Parke A. Dickey, geólogo, 1958</span></b></span></div>
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“A preponderância esmagadora de evidência geológica obriga à conclusão de que o petróleo bruto e gás natural de petróleo não têm ligação intrínseca com material biológico proveniente perto da superfície da Terra. Estes são materiais primordiais que foram expelidos de grandes profundidades.” </span></i></b><b><span style="font-family: Times, serif;">- Vladimir B. Porfir'ev, geólogo, 1956</span></b></span><br />
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<span style="font-size: x-large;"><b><i><span style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;"> “O petróleo é encontrado na mente dos homens.” </span></i></b><b><span style="font-family: Times, serif;">- Wallace E. Pratt, geólogo, 1952</span></b></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: x-large;"><b><i><span style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;">“</span></i></b><b><span style="font-family: Times, serif;"><i><span style="color: blue;">O petróleo é a criatura da ação direta das forças da terra sobre materiais comuns da terra.” </span></i>- Wallace E. Pratt, geólogo, 1942</span></b></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: x-large;"><b><i><span style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;"> <br />
“Quando em 1915 um perfurador de um poço pioneiro também relatou um granito a 1100 pés, ou algo assim, bem no meio do estado [Kansas], não fomos só céticos; ficamos indignados. Nós negamos que no poço havia granito, e quando a perfurador, sob nossa supervisão, colocou para fora do poço lindos fragmentos de granito rosa, nós acusamos que ele mesmo havia plantado o granito lá!</span></i></b><b><span style="font-family: Times, serif;"><i><span style="color: blue;">.”</span></i></span></b><b><span style="font-family: Times, serif;"> - Wallace E. Pratt, geólogo, 1942</span></b></span></div>
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“Os recursos não são, eles tornam-se.” </span></i></b><b><span style="font-family: Times, serif;">- Erich W. Zimmerman, economista, 1933</span></b></span></div>
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“Francamente, não há escassez de petróleo, simplesmente uma falta de esforço para tirá-lo do chão.” </span></i></b><b><span style="font-family: Times, serif;">- A. C. Bedford, geólogo, 1917</span></b></span></div>
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“Todo os campos de petróleo, gás natural, e betuminosos ou depósitos não podem ser considerados como qualquer outra coisa, mas os produtos da solfatáricas emanações vulcânicas condensadas e presas em sua passagem para cima nos reservatórios porosos de todas as idades da crosta terrestre de rochas arqueanas ao Quaternário. Nada é tão simples e, portanto, nada tão natural como esta origem, e veremos que ela pode ser perfeitamente comprovada.” </span></i></b><b><span style="font-family: Times, serif;">- Eugene Coste, geólogo, 1903</span></b></span></div>
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</span></i></b><b><i><span style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;">“</span></i></b><b><i><span style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;">Só o Dr. Broca sabe ao certo.”</span></i></b><b><span style="font-family: Times, serif;"> - John H. Galey, geólogo, data desconhecida</span></b></span></div>
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</span></i></b><b><i><span style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;">“</span></i></b><b><i><span style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;">É um fato singular e notável que, enquanto a maioria dos outros ramos da ciência se emancipou da dificuldade de raciocínio metafísico, a ciência da geologia continua a ser presa em “teorias a priori.” </span></i></b><b><span style="font-family: Times, serif;">- Sir Henry H. Howorth, geólogo, 1895</span></b></span></div>
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“É óbvio que a quantidade total de petróleo nas rochas subjacentes à superfície é grande... além da computação.” </span></i></b><b><span style="font-family: Times, serif;">- Edward Orton, geólogo, 1888</span></b></span></div>
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“A origem do petróleo é desconhecida.” </span></i>- F. A. Genth, geólogo, 1878</span></b></span></div>
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“O fato de o capital a se notar é que o petróleo nasceu nas profundezas da Terra, e é somente lá que devemos procurar sua origem.” </span></i></b><b><span style="font-family: Times, serif;">- Dmitri Mendeleyev, químico, 1877<br />
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</span></i></span></b><b><i><span style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;">“</span></i></b><b><span style="font-family: Times, serif;"><i><span style="color: blue;">Pode-se supor que a nafta foi produzida pela ação da água que penetra pelas frestas das camadas durante a revolta de cadeias de montanhas, porque a água com carbureto de ferro deve dar o óxido de ferro e hidrocarbonetos.” </span></i>- Dmitri Mendeleyev, químico, 1877</span></b></span></div>
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“Se nafta foi formada por matéria orgânica é muito duvidoso, uma vez que é encontrada nos mais antigos estratos Siluriano [Ordoviciano], que correspondem às épocas de existência da Terra, quando havia muito pouca matéria orgânica, mas não conseguia penetrar do maior para menor (mais antigo) estratos, uma vez que flutua sobre a água (e água penetra por todos os estratos).” </span></i></b><b><span style="font-family: Times, serif;">- Dmitri Mendeleyev, químico, 1877</span></b></span></div>
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“Será que esses combustíveis resultam sempre e necessariamente, de uma forma a partir da decomposição de uma substância orgânica pré-existente? É assim com os hidrocarbonetos tão freqüentemente observados em erupções vulcânicas e emanações, e ao qual M. Ch. Sainte-Claire Deville tem chamado atenção nos últimos anos? Finalmente, deve atribuir uma origem paralela à matéria carbonácea e de hidrocarbonetos contidos em certos meteoritos, e que parecem ter uma origem externa ao o nosso planeta? Estas são questões sobre as quais na opinião de muitos distintos geólogos ainda parecem não ter sido resolvidas.” </span></i></b><b><span style="font-family: Times, serif;">- Marcellin Berthelot, químico, 1866</span></b></span></div>
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“Pode-se, então, conceber a produção, por meios puramente mineral, de todos os hidrocarbonetos naturais A intervenção do calor, da água e de metais alcalinos. - Enfim, a tendência de hidrocarbonetos para unir para formar o material mais condensado - suficientes para dar conta da formação destes curiosos compostos. Além disso, esta formação será contínua, porque as reações que começou se renovam incessantemente.” </span></i></b><b><span style="font-family: Times, serif;">- Marcellin Berthelot, químico, 1866</span></b></span></div>
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“O gás hidrogênio evoluiu a partir de vulcões ou de abismos na terra durante o terremoto, geralmente é combinado com enxofre ou carbono; é provavelmente formado pela decomposição da água, quando encontra o acesso ao fogo subterrâneo.” </span></i></b><b><span style="font-family: Times, serif;">- Robert Bakewell, geólogo, 1813</span></b></span></div>
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“O petróleo é o produto de uma destilação de grande profundidade e as questões das rochas primitivas, abaixo dos quais jazem as forças das ações vulcânicas.” </span></i></b><b><span style="font-family: Times, serif;">- Alexander Von Humboldt, naturalista, 1804</span></b></span></div>
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“O óleo de rocha origina-se a partir de diminutos corpos de animais soterrados nos sedimentos, os quais sob a influência do aumento da temperatura e pressão, atuando durante um inimaginável longo período de tempo, transformam-se em óleo de rocha.”</span></i> -<i><span style="color: blue;"> </span></i>Mikhail Lomonosov, 1757</span></b></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: x-large;"><b><i><span style="color: blue; font-family: Times, serif;">“Nesta fase você deve admitir que tudo o que é visto para ser senciente é, no entanto, composto de átomos que são inconscientes. Os fenômenos abertos a nossa observação não contradizem esta conclusão ou está em conflito com ela. Ao contrário, eles levam-nos pela mão e nos obrigam a acreditamos que a animação é nascida, como eu afirmo, do inconsciente.” </span></i></b><b><span style="font-family: Times, serif;">- Titus Lucretius Carus, filósofo, de 50 a.C.</span></b></span></div>
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Geologisthttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03044199967329570135noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-32677820.post-60793238518402144452011-02-10T00:02:00.075-02:002019-11-28T18:56:22.384-03:00Abiotic Origin of Petroleum - Abiotic Oil<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%; color: red; font-size: 30pt;">Inorganic Origin of Petroleum</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 30pt;"></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%; font-size: large;"> <span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;">The theory of Inorganic Origin of Petroleum (synonyms: abiogenic, abiotic, abyssal, endogenous, juvenile, mineral, primordial) states that petroleum and natural gas was formed by non-biological processes deep in the Earth, crust and mantle. This contradicts the traditional view that the oil would be a "<a href="http://unconventionalgeology.blogspot.com.br/2011/10/origin-of-hydrocarbons-and-natural-gas.html">fossil fuel</a>" produced by remnants of ancient organisms. Oil is a hydrocarbon mixture in which the primary constituent is mainly methane </span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%; font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;">CH<sub>4</sub></span><span lang="EN-US" style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%; font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;"> (a molecule composed of one carbon atom bonded to four hydrogen atoms). Occurrence of methane is common in Earth's interior, with the possible formation of hydrocarbons at great depths.</span><br />
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<span style="background-color: white; font-size: large;"> The beginnings of this theory dates from the 19th Century when the French chemist </span><span style="font-size: large;"><b style="background-color: white;">Marcellin Berthelot</b></span><span style="background-color: white; font-size: large;"> and the Russian chemist </span><span style="font-size: large;"><b style="background-color: white;">Dmitri Mendeleev</b></span><span style="background-color: white; font-size: large;"> proposed to explain the origin of oil and their theories were revived in the decade after 1950.</span></div>
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<span style="background-color: white; font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;"> Hydrocarbons such as natural gas and oil are primordial materials i.e., were originally embedded to Earth during process of <a href="http://unconventionalgeology.blogspot.com.br/2011/09/earths-formation-and-its-interior.html">planetary accretion</a> and have no intrinsic connection with biological material near the surface of the Earth. Several studies based on thermodynamics; <a href="http://kth.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:374388/FULLTEXT01" target="_blank">experiments </a>of high pressure-temperature; many evidences from geophysical, geochemical and geological data, combined with information from space probes and telescopes in Solar System and Universe have clearly demonstrated the abiotic origin of oil.</span></span><br />
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<span lang="EN-US" style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%; font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: large;"> <span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">The inorganic theory contrasts with the ideas that posit exhaustion of oil (<a href="http://unconventionalgeology.blogspot.com.br/2012/02/peak-oil-myth.html">Peak Oil</a>), which assumes that the oil would be formed from biological processes and thus would occur only in small quantities and sets, tending to exhaust. According to the Abiogenic </span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;">(Abiotic)</span><span lang="EN-US" style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%; font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"> Theory, hydrocarbons are very abundant on the planet but the search for discovery of commercial accumulations is not simple because it must pass through understanding of geology of the favorable areas and especially understand the real nature of oil and </span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;">natural gas.</span><br />
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<b>Dmitri Mendeleev (1834-1907)</b></div>
<span style="font-size: x-large;"><b style="color: blue;"><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;">“</span></i></b><b style="color: blue;"><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;">The capital fact to note is that petroleum was born in the depths of the Earth, and is only there that we must seek its origin</span></i></b><b style="color: blue;"><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;">”</span></i></b><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"> </span></i></b></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: x-large;">—<b> </b></span><span style="font-size: x-large;"><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"> </span></i></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;">Dmitri Mendeleev, 1877.</span></b></span><br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjl3aPPTLGLtYB6f_JwqqFIYfd4kqx-scJA4rorSaaBUSn2ExNOzVbKj-LfDjPpRaQ24tFi__aODFfG8pyy-F2cZFlK-0he7iEIJ5fVxM9fxjoJBOQKl81ez8tgA3JdQVEh9dOM/s1600/Berthelot+1827-1907.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjl3aPPTLGLtYB6f_JwqqFIYfd4kqx-scJA4rorSaaBUSn2ExNOzVbKj-LfDjPpRaQ24tFi__aODFfG8pyy-F2cZFlK-0he7iEIJ5fVxM9fxjoJBOQKl81ez8tgA3JdQVEh9dOM/s320/Berthelot+1827-1907.jpg" width="241" /></a></div>
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<span style="font-size: small;"><b>Marcellin Berthelot (1827-1907)</b></span><br />
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<span style="font-size: x-large;"><b style="color: blue;"><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;">“</span></i></b></span><span style="font-size: small;"><i style="color: blue;"><span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: large;"><span style="font-size: x-large;"><b>Do these fuels result always and necessarily in one way from the decomposition of a pre-existing organic substance? Is it thus with the hydrocarbons so frequently observed in volcanic eruptions and emanations, and to which M. Ch. Sainte-Claire Deville has called attention in recent years? Finally, must one assign a parallel origin to carbonaceous matter and to hydrocarbons contained in certain meteorites, and which appear to have an origin foreign to our planet? These are questions on which the opinion of many distinguished geologists does not as yet appear to be fixed.</b></span></span></i></span><span style="font-size: x-large;"><b style="color: blue;"><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;">”</span></i></b></span><span style="font-size: small;"><i style="color: blue;"><span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: large;"> </span></i></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: x-large;">—<b> </b></span><span style="font-size: x-large;"><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"> </span></i></b></span><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="color: black; font-size: x-large;"><b><span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif;">Marcellin Berthelot, 1866</span></b></span></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: x-large;"><u><span lang="EN-US">Oil formation</span></u></span></b></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: large;"> There are two theories about the origin of natural hydrocarbons: the biogenic theory and the abiogenic theory.</span><span style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%; font-size: large;"> </span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: large;">These theories have been intensely debated since 1860 and less often after the discovery of vast oil reserves. </span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: large;"> The suggestion that the oil would be formed from organic biological detritus buried was originally proposed in </span><span style="background-color: white; font-size: large;">18th Century</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: large;"> by Russian scholar scientist </span><b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: large;">Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov</span></b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: large;">, in 1757.</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><b>Biogenic </b>(Orthodox): suggestion that remnants of buried plant and animal life (organic detritus) hundreds of meters deep. Action of pressure and temperature with long time, in geologic scale, would convert the kerogen into hydrocarbons (catagenesis).</span></span><br />
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"> It is noteworthy that when was proposed biogenic theory of oil formation has not yet had scientific advance through reports of space research and technology of telescopes and probes, as is now known the abundance of hydrocarbons (oil and natural gas) on Earth, in the Solar System and universe.</span></span></div>
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<b style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS",sans-serif;">Sir Fred Hoyle (1915-2001)</b><b style="color: blue;"><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 18pt;"> </span></i></b></div>
<span style="font-size: x-large;"><b style="color: blue;"><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;">“</span></i></b><b style="color: blue;"><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;">The suggestion that petroleum might have arisen from some transformation of squashed fish or biological detritus is surely the silliest notion to have been entertained by substantial numbers of persons over an extended period of time.</span></i></b><b style="color: blue;"><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;">”</span></i></b><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="color: blue;"> </span> </span></i></b></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: x-large;">—<b> </b></span><span style="font-size: x-large;"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;">Sir Fred Hoyle, 1982</span></b></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;"><b>Abiogenic</b>: deep deposits of primordial hydrocarbons trapped during formation of the planet. Hundreds of kilometers deep, hydrocarbon molecules (mostly methane) that migrate from the mantle to the crust carrying </span><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;">complex</span><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;">molecules of </span><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;">hydrocarbons. In this fast migration </span><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;">process</span><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;">, primordial gases such as helium and nitrogen may be present and configure as carrier gases.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;"> Presence of </span><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;">some </span><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;">biological molecules </span><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;">associated with </span><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;">primordial hydrocarbons is closely related to contamination by microorganisms (Archaea) that feed on hydrocarbons and die into the oil, leaving their parts as fingerprints inside oil at shallower levels in crust. Almost all the hydrocarbons that chemically form oil are stable at great depths and they are primordial and metastable compounds, therefore, oil deposits represent simple displacement of hydrocarbons (oil and natural gas) from its original environment of formation i.e., from Earth's upper mantle to shallower levels in the crust.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;"> Variation of the abiogenic theory suggests that part of the oil may be formed by reactions like Fischer-Tropsch Synthesis from serpentinization of peridotite of upper mantle, by chemical hydrolysis reactions, producing hydrogen by reacting with other compounds of carbon (methane), carbon dioxide or carbonates in presence of catalysts transition metals such as Iron, Nickel, Vanadium, produces n-alkanes hydrocarbons which later migrate to shallower levels, mainly in sedimentary basins by tectonic forces.</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%; font-size: large;"><b style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-size: x-large;"><u><span lang="EN-US">Coal formation</span></u></span></b></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"><b><span lang="EN-US">Biogenic</span></b></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: large;"> (Orthodox): Coal is a material derived from organic detritus (plant material) that was buried and compressed.</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><b><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Coal mining in Indonesia</span></b></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%;">Abiogenic</span></b></span><span lang="EN-US" style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%; font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;">: <span style="font-size: large;">Coal (black only) is a material that may contain presence of organic compounds, but that was filled by inorganic hydrocarbons that migrated by continuous upwelling come from great depth </span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%; font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;"><span style="font-size: large;">and reached these deposits in the surface</span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%; font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;"><span style="font-size: large;"> and preserving fine debris and cellular tissues of plants. Such a situation may occur in the surface migration of methane and oil on areas of marshes or <a href="http://unconventionalgeology.blogspot.com.br/2012/01/peat-formation.html">peat</a>.</span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: large;"> Several metals such as Nickel, Vanadium, Chromium, Cadmium, Mercury, Arsenic, Lead, Selenium, among others, are also present in coal. </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: large;">Many </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: large;">coals </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: large;">are sometimes </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: large;">bituminous </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: large;">and have high sulfur content. <span style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%;">As with oil, these metals come from deep inside the Earth (mantle) and <a href="http://unconventionalgeology.blogspot.com.br/2012/01/origin-of-black-coal.html">black coal</a> only represent stages in high loss of hydrogen of primordial hydrocarbons and intense biodegradation at shallower levels as postulated by the American scientist <b><a href="http://origeminorganicadopetroleo.blogspot.com/2011/01/thomas-gold-professional-papers.html" target="_blank">Thomas Gold</a></b>. </span></span><span style="font-size: large;">It's interesting that the same biomarkers found in oil are present in coal and represent, of course, parts of prokaryotic archaea that re-worked primordial hydrocarbons.</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: large;"> A</span><span style="font-size: large;"><span class="long_text short_text" id="result_box" lang="en"><span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">ssociation</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">of</span> biocide and poisonous <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">mercury</span> with <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">coal</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">is</span> also <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">common evidence and i</span></span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: large;">t's not rare </span><span style="font-size: large;"><span class="long_text" id="result_box" lang="en"><span class="hps">association</span> <span class="hps">of uranium with</span> black <span class="hps">coal deposits</span></span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: large;">. </span><span style="font-size: large;">In many coal deposits in the world are commonly found thin white layers called <i>tonsteins</i> that consisting of kaolin material, sometimes interpreted as volcanic ash.</span><br />
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: large;"> There are some occurrences of coal in Precambrian, Neoproterozoic. According to fossil record of planet Earth there's no superior plant at that time, then the Proterozoic coal is surely abiotic and represents probably ancient oil accumulation with high hydrogen loss and biodegradation of primordial hydrocarbons.</span><span style="font-size: large;"><span class="long_text" id="result_box" lang="en"><span class="hps"><br />
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<span style="font-size: large;"><span class="long_text" id="result_box" lang="en"><span class="hps"> Coal</span> <span class="hps">sometimes occurs in</span> <span class="hps">thick layers</span><span class="">, as shown</span> <span class="hps">in the pictures below</span><span class="">.</span> <span class="hps">It would be</span> <span class="hps">hard to </span></span></span><span style="font-size: large;"><span class="long_text" id="result_box" lang="en"><span class="hps">imagine</span> <span class="hps">a</span> <span class="hps">swamp or</span> <span class="hps">an</span> <span class="hps">area</span> </span></span><span style="font-size: large;"><span class="long_text" id="result_box" lang="en"><span class="hps">with </span></span></span><span style="font-size: large;"><span class="long_text" id="result_box" lang="en"><span class="hps">thick</span> <span class="hps">ancient forests </span></span></span><span style="font-size: large;"><span class="long_text" id="result_box" lang="en"><span class="hps">accumulated</span> </span></span><span style="font-size: large;"><span class="long_text" id="result_box" lang="en"> <span class="hps">and its volume decreased after the</span> <span class="hps">water loss</span> <span class="hps">and compaction</span> <span class="hps">of the layers</span> <span class="hps">to form</span> <span class="hps">a</span> <span class="hps">thick </span></span></span><span style="font-size: large;"><span class="long_text" id="result_box" lang="en"><span class="hps">coal </span></span></span><span style="font-size: large;"><span class="long_text" id="result_box" lang="en"><span class="hps">layer</span><span class="hps">.</span></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"><span class="long_text" id="result_box" lang="en"><span class="hps"> Only the</span> <span class="hps">brown</span> <span class="hps">coal</span> <span class="hps atn">(</span><span class="">lignite</span><span class="">)</span> <span class="hps">should be considered</span> </span></span><span style="font-size: large;"><span class="long_text short_text" id="result_box" lang="en"><span class="hps">dominantly</span></span></span><span style="font-size: large;"><span class="long_text" id="result_box" lang="en"><span class="hps"> biogenic</span><span class="">.</span></span></span></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgp2sojRXb9i40Z7xZKnaLW6yFKHxLXvokSvcsA4K9xHKI16R4Ukg8u65MAoZJ8nQL6tO_tY2B3-li0TcyfnoNIGaSMOYKwLRc2BjW1o26iLXkw0AxipSutFFFIrhN66OosXwMa/s1600/ScreenShot233.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="311" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgp2sojRXb9i40Z7xZKnaLW6yFKHxLXvokSvcsA4K9xHKI16R4Ukg8u65MAoZJ8nQL6tO_tY2B3-li0TcyfnoNIGaSMOYKwLRc2BjW1o26iLXkw0AxipSutFFFIrhN66OosXwMa/s400/ScreenShot233.jpg" width="400" /></a></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-size: small;"><b>Coal layer over 100 ft - Powder River, Wyoming, USA</b></span></span></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiSs2yrNgY-UbCl0cf8BnZg-_WQF92LkyaIPXWybOJy0_09nAe-nAehDgDuWYG6AqLiBnbpMyPPU-Qv0Yv2Kh-yFANaF6Hfu6VnwpztOinhS0A3FBXbjq85erz3fFkAmweg_aup/s1600/coal-wall.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="297" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiSs2yrNgY-UbCl0cf8BnZg-_WQF92LkyaIPXWybOJy0_09nAe-nAehDgDuWYG6AqLiBnbpMyPPU-Qv0Yv2Kh-yFANaF6Hfu6VnwpztOinhS0A3FBXbjq85erz3fFkAmweg_aup/s640/coal-wall.jpg" width="640" /></a></div>
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<span style="font-size: small;"><b>Thick coal layer. See car and person as scale </b></span></div>
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<span class="hps" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;"> It is also common</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;"> occurrence </span><span class="hps" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;">of coal</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;"> </span><span class="hps" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;">over oil and</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;"> </span><span class="hps" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;">gas production</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;"> </span><span class="hps" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;">areas</span><span class="" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;">. See below a comparison between maps of oil and coal occurrences in the United States.</span><br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhYCgHvzEewoaUB4FaWrjM7hyphenhyphen1Mq4ikvCM-HrfOSkAYeFBSLKqeySuRPZdDkz-XSLGoyJ65xjqGbkjlX_U1zy3g6aUdx-fzdpxBHOYw98JCmKQwEQYlvBvffJsi3x9oeUbl_PDG/s1600/oil+US.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="300" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhYCgHvzEewoaUB4FaWrjM7hyphenhyphen1Mq4ikvCM-HrfOSkAYeFBSLKqeySuRPZdDkz-XSLGoyJ65xjqGbkjlX_U1zy3g6aUdx-fzdpxBHOYw98JCmKQwEQYlvBvffJsi3x9oeUbl_PDG/s400/oil+US.jpg" width="400" /></a></div>
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<b style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif;">Oil and natural gas production areas in the United States</b></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh1B30BaxIGLzKKA_yazBhBySyB2i0eOJp_9CN_yQ2XzkTpcTkdQawOY03AUIp6-nL0M1FKNL1VJ1EUOHFKlrbp6DJtzVmmttZDo45jARp9ZUfWCz9ewcDq1aywiDxmW_xGvcZy/s1600/Coal+Map+US.gif" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="248" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh1B30BaxIGLzKKA_yazBhBySyB2i0eOJp_9CN_yQ2XzkTpcTkdQawOY03AUIp6-nL0M1FKNL1VJ1EUOHFKlrbp6DJtzVmmttZDo45jARp9ZUfWCz9ewcDq1aywiDxmW_xGvcZy/s400/Coal+Map+US.gif" width="400" /></a></div>
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<b style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif;"> </b><b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Main coal basins in the United States</span></b></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%; color: red; font-size: 30pt;">Modern Abiotic Theories about Oil Formation</span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: large;"> Russian geologist <b>Nikolai Alexandrovitch Kudryavtsev</b> was the first proponent of the modern theory of abiotic oil, in 1951. </span><span style="background-color: white; font-size: large;">He argued that no petroleum resembling the chemical composition of natural crudes has ever been made from plant material in the laboratory under conditions resembling those in nature. </span><span style="background-color: white; font-size: large;">He analyzed the geology of the Athabasca bituminous sands in Alberta, Canada (Athabasca Tar Sands) and concluded that no "source rocks" could form the enormous volume of oil in those tar sands (reserves currently estimated about 1.7 trillion barrels) and the most plausible explanation is that oil is abiotic, abiogenic, inorganic and that comes from deep inside the Earth through deep faults.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"> <b>Kudryavtsev's Rule</b> states that "any region in which hydrocarbons are found at one level will be seen to have hydrocarbons in large or small quantities, but at all levels down to and into the basement rock."</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: large;"><b> Kudryavtsev </b>worked with such brilliant scientists as <b>Petr N. Kropotkin, Vladimir B. Porfir'ev, Emmanuil B. Chekaliuk, Vladilen A. Krayushkin, Georgi E. Boyko, Georgi I. Voitov, Grygori N. Dolenko, Iona V. Greenberg, Nikolai S. Beskrovny, Victor F. Linetsky </b>and many others.</span><br />
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: large;"> He is considered Father of Modern </span><span style="font-size: large;">Abiotic Oil </span><span style="font-size: large;">Theory.</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-size: small;"><b style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS",sans-serif;">Nikolai A. Kudryavtsev (1893-1971)</b></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"><b>Vladimir B. Porfir'yev</b></span></span><span style="font-size: small;"><b style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS",sans-serif;"> (1899-1982)</b></span><span style="font-size: x-large;"><b style="color: blue;"><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><br />
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<span style="font-size: x-large;"><b style="color: blue;"><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;">“</span></i></b></span><i><b style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-large;"><span style="color: blue;">The overwhelming preponderance of geological evidence compels the </span></span></b><span style="font-size: large;"><b><span style="font-size: x-large;"><span style="color: blue;"><span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif;">conclusion that crude oil and natural petroleum gas have no intrinsic connection with biological matter originating near the surface of the Earth. They are primordial materials which have been erupted from great depths.</span></span></span></b></span></i><span style="font-size: x-large;"><b style="color: blue;"><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;">”</span></i></b><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="color: blue;"> </span></span></i></b></span><i><span style="font-size: large;"><b><span style="font-size: x-large;"><span style="color: blue;"> </span></span></b><span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: x-large;">-- </span></span></i><span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: x-large;"><b>Vladimir B. Porfir'yev, 1956</b></span><br />
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: large;"><span style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%;"> <span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">The Russian-Ukrainian Abiotic Theory of Petroleum, based on thermodynamic calculations, </span></span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;">was initiated </span><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;">in Ukraine by the scientist Professor </span><b style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: large;">Emmanuil B. Chekaliuk</span></b><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;"> (1967), whose studies indicated that the oil comes from and originates at high pressures and temperatures in the Earth's mantle, without the participation of carbon of organic origin (plants or animals). This theory is supported by several studies conducted experimental laboratory in the United States by Dr. </span><b style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: large;">J.F. Kenney</span></b><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;"> and other Russian scientists, </span><b style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><a href="http://kth.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:374388/FULLTEXT01" target="_blank"><span style="font-size: large;">Kolesnikov A.</span></a></b><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;">, </span><span style="font-size: large;"><b style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Kutcherov V.G</b><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">.</span></span><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;">, </span><b style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: large;">Goncharov A.F.</span></b><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;">, </span><b style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><a href="http://jcp.aip.org/resource/1/jcpsa6/v130/i16/p164520_s1?view=fulltext&bypassSSO=1" target="_blank"><span style="font-size: large;">Spanu L.</span></a></b><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;"> and others.</span><br />
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"><span style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%;"> </span></span><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhSGFyWMWaZzgMr7kkEqJ8zwYvKLouB3n2Dfct4MBkl11FRrRkgcQ2N-Pe9sFq86n0SPWMlZieCIF3sSvi3xCoCE89gGLiutJwnYj8ikdrNbC-uISYeJtg8aX7JVmDFNksZ9Wf8/s1600/Chekaliuk.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhSGFyWMWaZzgMr7kkEqJ8zwYvKLouB3n2Dfct4MBkl11FRrRkgcQ2N-Pe9sFq86n0SPWMlZieCIF3sSvi3xCoCE89gGLiutJwnYj8ikdrNbC-uISYeJtg8aX7JVmDFNksZ9Wf8/s320/Chekaliuk.jpg" width="247" /></a></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-size: large;"><b><span style="font-size: small;">Emmanuil B. Chekaliuk (1909-1990)</span></b></span></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: x-large;"><b style="color: blue;"><i><span lang="EN-US">“</span></i></b></span><i style="color: blue; font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><b><span style="font-size: x-large;">Statistical thermodynamic analysis has established clearly that hydrocarbon molecules which comprise petroleum require very high pressures for their spontaneous formation, comparable to the pressures required for the same of diamond. In that sense, hydrocarbon molecules are the high-pressure polymorphs of the reduced carbon system as is diamond of elemental carbon. Any notion which might suggest that hydrocarbon molecules spontaneously evolve in the regimes of temperature and pressure characterized by the near-surface of the Earth, which are the regimes of methane creation and hydrocarbon destruction, does not even deserve consideration</span></b></i><span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: x-large;"><b style="color: blue;"><i><span lang="EN-US">.” </span></i></b></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: x-large;"><span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif;">—</span><b><span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif;"> Emmanuil B. Chekaliuk, 1968 </span></b></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%; font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large; line-height: normal;"> The American scientist, astronomer and astrophysicist <b><a href="http://origeminorganicadopetroleo.blogspot.com/2011/01/thomas-gold-professional-papers.html" target="_blank">Thomas Gold</a></b> was one of the most prominent proponents of abiogenic theory in the Western. </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: large;">He claims that oil is a primordial material, formed deep inside the Earth and other planets also (especially in the form as methane). </span><span style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%;"><span style="font-size: large;">The rise of methane, sometimes along with helium and nitrogen, act as carrier gases, bring together heavier hydrocarbons and reach shallower in the crust, where </span></span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: normal;"><span style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%;"><span style="font-size: large;"> deep microbial life</span></span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: normal;"><span style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%;"><span style="font-size: large;"> interact with </span></span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: normal;"><span style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%;"><span style="font-size: large;">the hydrocarbons</span></span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: normal;"><span style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%;"><span style="font-size: large;"> and contaminates the primordial oil. </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large; line-height: normal;"><span class="long_text" id="result_box" lang="en"><span class="hps">He</span> proposed <span class="hps">The </span><a href="http://unconventionalgeology.blogspot.com.br/2012/01/deep-hot-biosphere.html" target="_blank">Deep Hot Biosphere</a><span class=""></span> theory, <span class="hps">based on</span> <span class="hps">Deep</span><span class="">-Earth</span> <span class="hps">Gas</span> <span class="hps">Theory </span></span></span><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;">according to previous ideas about the origin of oil from studies of eminent </span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;">Russian-Ukrainian </span><span style="background-color: white;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;">scientists and others and his own experience as an astrophysicist, astronomer, cosmologist </span></span><span class="hps" style="background-color: white; font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;">to explain and solve</span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;"> </span><span class="hps" style="background-color: white; font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;">the paradox</span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;"> </span><span class="hps" style="background-color: white; font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;">of petroleum </span><span class="hps" style="background-color: white; font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;">and other</span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;"> </span><span class="hps" style="background-color: white; font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;">phenomena connected with</span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;"> </span><span class="hps" style="background-color: white; font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;">the origin</span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;"> </span><span class="hps" style="background-color: white; font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;">and evolution of</span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;"> </span><span class="hps" style="background-color: white; font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; 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<span style="font-size: small;"><b style="color: black;">Thomas Gold (1920-2004)</b></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-size: x-large;"><b style="color: blue;"><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;">“</span></i></b><b style="color: blue;"><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;">Hydrocarbons are not biology reworked by geology (as the traditional view would hold), but rather geology reworked by biology.</span></i></b><b style="color: blue;"><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;">”</span></i></b></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: x-large;"><span style="color: blue;"> </span> </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: x-large;">— </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 18pt;"><span style="font-size: x-large;"><b>(Thomas Gold, 1920 - 2004)</b></span> </span></div>
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<span style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%; font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;">One of the predictions of abiogenic theories is that other Solar System planets and their satellites (moons) have oceans of hydrocarbons (methane, ethane). These hydrocarbons would be present or during the formation of the solar system or were products of subsequent chemical reactions. The hydrocarbons are present in the nebulae, commonly as complex Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAH's).</span></span><br />
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<b><span class="long_text" id="result_box" lang="en"><span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">Hydrocarbons</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">are</span> very <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">common</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">in</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">the Solar System</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">and</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">universe</span></span></b></div>
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<b><span class="long_text" id="result_box" lang="en"><span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas"> </span></span></b><span style="font-size: small;"><b><span class="long_text" id="result_box" lang="en"><span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">Image</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">of</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">Orion Nebula</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">images</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">from</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">the Hubble Space Telescope</span> <span class="hps atn" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">(</span><span title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">HST</span><span title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">)</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">and</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">Spitzer</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">Space</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">Telescope</span> <span class="hps atn" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">(</span><span title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">SST)</span><span title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">.</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">The</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">colors</span> in <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">yellow</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">due</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">to</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">Polycyclic</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">Aromatic</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">Hydrocarbons</span> <span class="hps atn" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">(</span><span class="" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">PAH's</span><span title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">)</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">that</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">are</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">common</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">in</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">nebulae</span><span title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">,</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">comets.</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">These</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">aromatic compounds</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">are also</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">part</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">of the</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">oil</span><span class="" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">.</span></span></b></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: large;"><span style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%;"> <span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">The American Association of Petroleum Geologists (<b>AAPG</b>) has conducted conferences on issues about the origin of oil (biogenic/Abiogenic) and involvement in exploration and oil production.</span></span></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%; color: red; font-size: 30pt;">Evidences that support Abiotic Theory of oil formation</span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%; color: blue; font-size: 12pt;"><span style="color: black; font-size: x-large;"><b style="color: blue;"><span lang="EN-US"><u>Supergiant oil and gas fields </u></span></b></span></span><b style="background-color: white; color: blue; font-size: xx-large;"><span lang="EN-US"><u> </u></span></b><b style="background-color: white; color: blue; font-size: xx-large;"><span lang="EN-US"><u> </u></span></b><b style="background-color: white; color: blue; font-size: xx-large;"><span lang="EN-US"><u> </u></span></b><b style="background-color: white; color: blue; font-size: xx-large;"><span lang="EN-US"><u> </u></span></b><b style="background-color: white; color: blue; font-size: xx-large;"><span lang="EN-US"><u> </u></span></b><b style="background-color: white; color: blue; font-size: xx-large;"><span lang="EN-US"><u> </u></span></b><b style="background-color: white; color: blue; font-size: xx-large;"><span lang="EN-US"><u> </u></span></b><b style="background-color: white; color: blue; font-size: xx-large;"><span lang="EN-US"><u> </u></span></b><b style="background-color: white; color: blue; font-size: xx-large;"><span lang="EN-US"><u> </u></span></b><b style="background-color: white; color: blue; font-size: xx-large;"><span lang="EN-US"><u> </u></span></b><b style="background-color: white; color: blue; font-size: xx-large;"><span lang="EN-US"><u> </u></span></b><b style="background-color: white; color: blue; font-size: xx-large;"><span lang="EN-US"><u> </u></span></b><b style="background-color: white; color: blue; font-size: xx-large;"><span lang="EN-US"><u> </u></span></b><b style="background-color: white; color: blue; font-size: xx-large;"><span lang="EN-US"><u> </u></span></b><b style="background-color: white; color: blue; font-size: xx-large;"><span lang="EN-US"><u> </u></span></b><b style="background-color: white; color: blue; font-size: xx-large;"><span lang="EN-US"><u> </u></span></b><b style="background-color: white; color: blue; font-size: xx-large;"><span lang="EN-US"><u> </u></span></b><b style="background-color: white; color: blue; font-size: xx-large;"><span lang="EN-US"><u> </u></span></b><b style="background-color: white; color: blue; font-size: xx-large;"><span lang="EN-US"><u> </u></span></b><b style="background-color: white; color: blue; font-size: xx-large;"><span lang="EN-US"><u> </u></span></b><b style="background-color: white; color: blue; font-size: xx-large;"><span lang="EN-US"><u> </u></span></b><b style="background-color: white; color: blue; font-size: xx-large;"><span lang="EN-US"><u> </u></span></b><b style="background-color: white; color: blue; font-size: xx-large;"><span lang="EN-US"><u> </u></span></b><b style="background-color: white; color: blue; font-size: xx-large;"><span lang="EN-US"><u> </u></span></b><b style="background-color: white; color: blue; font-size: xx-large;"><span lang="EN-US"><u> </u></span></b><b style="background-color: white; color: blue; font-size: xx-large;"><span lang="EN-US"><u> </u></span></b><b style="background-color: white; color: blue; font-size: xx-large;"><span lang="EN-US"><u> </u></span></b><b style="background-color: white; color: blue; font-size: xx-large;"><span lang="EN-US"><u> </u></span></b><b style="background-color: white; color: blue; font-size: xx-large;"><span lang="EN-US"><u> </u></span></b><b style="background-color: white; color: blue; font-size: xx-large;"><span lang="EN-US"><u> </u></span></b><b style="background-color: white; color: blue; font-size: xx-large;"><span lang="EN-US"><u> </u></span></b><b style="background-color: white; color: blue; font-size: xx-large;"><span lang="EN-US"><u> </u></span></b><b style="background-color: white; color: blue; font-size: xx-large;"><span lang="EN-US"><u> </u></span></b><b style="background-color: white; color: blue; font-size: xx-large;"><span lang="EN-US"><u> </u></span></b><b style="background-color: white; color: blue; font-size: xx-large;"><span lang="EN-US"><u> </u></span></b><b style="background-color: white; color: blue; font-size: xx-large;"><span lang="EN-US"><u> </u></span></b><b style="background-color: white; color: blue; font-size: xx-large;"><span lang="EN-US"><u> </u></span></b><b style="background-color: white; color: blue; font-size: xx-large;"><span lang="EN-US"><u> </u></span></b><b style="background-color: white; color: blue; font-size: xx-large;"><span lang="EN-US"><u> </u></span></b><b style="background-color: white; color: blue; font-size: xx-large;"><span lang="EN-US"><u> </u></span></b><b style="background-color: white; color: blue; font-size: xx-large;"><span lang="EN-US"><u> </u></span></b><b style="background-color: white; color: blue; font-size: xx-large;"><span lang="EN-US"><u> </u></span></b><b style="background-color: white; color: blue; font-size: xx-large;"><span lang="EN-US"><u> </u></span></b><b style="background-color: white; color: blue; font-size: xx-large;"><span lang="EN-US"><u> </u></span></b><b style="background-color: white; color: blue; font-size: xx-large;"><span lang="EN-US"><u> </u></span></b><b style="background-color: white; color: blue; font-size: xx-large;"><span lang="EN-US"><u> </u></span></b><b style="background-color: white; color: blue; font-size: xx-large;"><span lang="EN-US"><u> </u></span></b><b style="background-color: white; color: blue; font-size: xx-large;"><span lang="EN-US"><u> </u></span></b><b style="background-color: white; color: blue; font-size: xx-large;"><span lang="EN-US"><u> </u></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%; color: blue;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: black; font-size: large;"> Russian geologist </span><b style="color: black;"><span style="font-size: large;">Nikolai Alexandrovitch Kudryavtsev</span></b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: black; font-size: large;"> was a prominent advocate of the Abiogenic Theory. He presented many examples of that, substantial and sometimes commercial quantities of hydrocarbons were found in the basement crystalline rocks or in sediments directly to them overlapping.</span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large; line-height: normal;"> He cited cases in Kansas and California (United States), in western Venezuela and Morocco. <span style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%;">He also indicated that the oil reservoirs in sedimentary strata are often related to significant deep fractures in the basement immediately below these accumulations. This is also evidenced in the supergiant </span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large; line-height: normal;"><span style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%;">fields such as </span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; line-height: normal;"><span style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%;"><span style="font-size: large;">Ghawar in Saudi Arabia; Athabasca oil sands, in Canada; Orinoco oil sands, in Venezuela; Panhandle-Hugoton gas field, in Texas, Kansas and Oklahoma that also produces helium in commercial quantities; Tengiz in Kazakhstan; Prudhoe Bay oilfield in North Slope, Alaska; Lula field, in Brazil; White Tiger oilfield, Vietnam and </span></span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large; text-align: justify;">many others as</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%;"><span style="font-size: large;"> t</span></span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: large; line-height: 19px;">he supergiant</span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: large; line-height: 19px;"> </span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: large; line-height: 19px;">South Pars/North Dome field or North Field</span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: large; line-height: 19px;"> which </span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: large; line-height: 19px;">is</span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: large; line-height: 19px;"> the world's largest </span><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">natural gas condensate<span style="background-color: white; line-height: 19px;"> </span><span style="background-color: white; line-height: 19px;">field located in the</span><span style="background-color: white; line-height: 19px;"> </span>Persian Gulf, <span style="background-color: white; line-height: 19px;">shared between</span><span style="background-color: white; line-height: 19px;"> </span>Iran<span style="background-color: white; line-height: 19px;"> </span><span style="background-color: white; line-height: 19px;">and</span><span style="background-color: white; line-height: 19px;"> </span>Qatar.</span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: large;"><span style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%;"> In the Last Soldier oil field (Wyoming, USA),<b> Kudryavtsev </b>established that in all horizons of the geological section, sandstones of the Cambrian to Cretaceous cover the basement and have reservoirs of oil.</span> A flow of oil was also obtained in the basement. Gaseous hydrocarbons, he noted, are not rare in igneous and metamorphic rocks of the Canadian Shield. <span style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%;">Petroleum in Precambrian gneiss is found on the western shore of Lake Baikal in Russia. He noted that oil is present in large or small quantities, but in all horizons below any petroleum accumulation, apparently totally independent of the variability of the conditions of formation of these horizons. This nomination has become known as "<b>Kudryavtsev's Rule</b>" and many examples of it have been recorded in various parts of the world. He concluded that commercial accumulations of oil are simply found where permeable zones are covered with impermeable ones.</span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: large;"><b> Kudryavtsev </b>introduced a number of other relevant considerations as arguments. <span style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%;">Columns of flames have been seen during the eruptions of some volcanoes, sometimes reaching 500 meters high, as during the eruption of Mount Merapi, in Sumatra in 1932. The eruptions of mud volcanoes have released huge amounts of methane so that even the most prolific gas field overlying has been exhausted long ago. The water from the mud volcanoes of bearing some chemicals such as Iodine (I), bromine (Br) and boron (B) that could not be derived from the sediments and next that exceed the concentrations present in seawater at hundreds of times. Mud volcanoes are often associated with volcanic lava (magma) and when near the latter, the mud volcanoes emit non-combustible gases as carbon dioxide, whereas when farther away emit methane.</span></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: small;">Mud volcanoes, Salse di Nirano, north Italy</span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: large;"><span style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%;"> <span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"> He knew the occurrence of oil in basement rocks of the Kola Peninsula (Russia) and oil leaks on the Siljan impact structure, Sweden. He noted, as mentioned above, that the immense quantities of hydrocarbons in the Athabasca Oil Sands (Tar Sands), Canada would have to contain a vast amount of "source rocks" according to the conventional model, when indeed, none was found.</span></span></span><br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEju2jQ7i0sxjWPDfSCwfF4GHX704oQzrDA7MrgEAPoJfuzJiBa3p957wnc8pGwi3gLCSGKFcorUa1W6G3sEFka1qmOt1CerXzSNPjRqkksqNOSuzLQLmpflJ0-PzPz1hRdmoqQO/s1600/alberta_oil_sands_map2.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" height="400" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEju2jQ7i0sxjWPDfSCwfF4GHX704oQzrDA7MrgEAPoJfuzJiBa3p957wnc8pGwi3gLCSGKFcorUa1W6G3sEFka1qmOt1CerXzSNPjRqkksqNOSuzLQLmpflJ0-PzPz1hRdmoqQO/s400/alberta_oil_sands_map2.jpg" width="312" /></a><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiPoyxyth2F04PR5LtLiFfqFHy_Ijl4LRTQ1NOtZ9TzwEeHJzxRou3xNiHLxstrh4mpRq0bN9Fg0fBwl0nT2feXLaYM6cTy4QFZ7_OWbX1e-Q9VAOaoOOnFphW0mmai4kcWen_6/s1600/ScreenShot224.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="400" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiPoyxyth2F04PR5LtLiFfqFHy_Ijl4LRTQ1NOtZ9TzwEeHJzxRou3xNiHLxstrh4mpRq0bN9Fg0fBwl0nT2feXLaYM6cTy4QFZ7_OWbX1e-Q9VAOaoOOnFphW0mmai4kcWen_6/s400/ScreenShot224.jpg" width="241" /></a><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"><span style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%;"> </span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"><span style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%;"> </span></span><b style="color: black;"> </b><b style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS",sans-serif;"><span class="long_text" id="result_box" lang="en"><span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">Maps</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">of the</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">Athabasca</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">Tar</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">Sands</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">oil sands</span><span class="" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">,</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">Alberta</span><span class="" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">, Canada</span><span class="" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">.</span> </span></b></div>
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<b><span class="long_text" id="result_box" lang="en"><span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">The estimated reserves</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">are</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">1.7</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">trillion</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">barrels</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">of</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">oil</span></span></b></div>
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<b style="color: black; font-family: "Trebuchet MS",sans-serif;">Athabasca Tar (oil) Sands mining, Alberta, Canadá</b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"><span style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%;"> </span></span></div>
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<b><span class="long_text" id="result_box" lang="en"><span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">Map</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">of</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">supergiant</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">Ghawar</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">Field</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">in</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">Saudi</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">Arabia</span><span title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">.</span> This field is <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">230</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">km long.</span> </span></b></div>
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<b><span class="long_text short_text" id="result_box" lang="en"><span class="hps" style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">Horst</span><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"> </span><span class="hps" style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">basement</span><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"> </span><span class="hps" style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">with deep faults below</span><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"> </span><span class="hps" style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">the</span><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"> </span><span class="hps" style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">Ghawar</span><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"> </span><span class="hps" style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">Field</span></span></b><br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi4BoeaIL4vQwu9rh5tkYWTmHCpP-ZnZbI9FMmJ8f69LTsWPWxRIVHkiZh4s47m_SShm6FPanAgiW1OG9K8-rqhf9LPjSBIcP33SP4pwenRUK1txXJNFQMDlnYQJ0JE5zJDmqhl/s1600/ScreenShot221.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="465" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi4BoeaIL4vQwu9rh5tkYWTmHCpP-ZnZbI9FMmJ8f69LTsWPWxRIVHkiZh4s47m_SShm6FPanAgiW1OG9K8-rqhf9LPjSBIcP33SP4pwenRUK1txXJNFQMDlnYQJ0JE5zJDmqhl/s640/ScreenShot221.jpg" width="640" /></a></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: small;"><span class="long_text" id="result_box" lang="en"><span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">hydrocarbons</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">migrate</span> </span><span class="long_text" id="result_box" lang="en"><span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">and</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">accumulate in</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">the</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">overlying</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">sedimentary</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">reservoirs</span></span></span></b></div>
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<a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-f6FfSx3dSn8/TviRXvmR61I/AAAAAAAAAvw/C91MvnGAqa4/s1600/South_Pars.gif" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="400" src="https://2.bp.blogspot.com/-f6FfSx3dSn8/TviRXvmR61I/AAAAAAAAAvw/C91MvnGAqa4/s400/South_Pars.gif" width="292" /></a></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"><span style="background-color: white; line-height: 19px;">The</span><span style="background-color: white; line-height: 19px;"> </span><span style="background-color: white; line-height: 19px;">South Pars/North Dome field</span><span style="background-color: white; line-height: 19px;"> </span><span style="background-color: white; line-height: 19px;">is</span><span style="background-color: white; line-height: 19px;"> the world's largest </span>natural gas <span style="background-color: white; line-height: 19px;">and holds an estimated </span></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"><span style="background-color: white; line-height: 19px;">1,800 trillion cubic feet (1,800 Tcf - 51 trillion cubic metres) of <i>in-situ</i></span><span style="background-color: white; line-height: 19px;"> </span>natural gas<span style="background-color: white; line-height: 19px;"> </span><span style="background-color: white; line-height: 19px;">and some </span></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"><span style="background-color: white; line-height: 19px;">50 billion barrels (7.9 billion cubic metres) of</span><span style="background-color: white; line-height: 19px;"> </span>natural gas condensates<span style="line-height: 19px;"> </span></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"><span style="line-height: 19px;">and </span><span style="background-color: white; line-height: 19px;">covers an area of 9,700 square kilometres (3,700 sq mi) </span></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-size: x-large;"><b style="color: blue; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span lang="EN-US"><u>Methane and extraterrestrial hydrocarbons</u></span></b></span><span style="font-size: x-large;"><b style="color: blue;"><u><span lang="EN-US"> </span></u></b></span><span style="font-size: x-large;"><b style="color: blue; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span lang="EN-US"><br />
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: large;"> Methane and many other hydrocarbons have been detected in several regions of the solar system.<span style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%;"> </span>Methane is a common constituent of the cosmos and it was, together other volatiles, incorporated and imprisoned in the Earth during its formation. <span style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%;">Alternatively carbon also it could have been enriched the Earth </span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: large;"><span style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%;">through </span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: large;"><span style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%;">chondritic meteorites. A special class of meteorites </span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: large;"><span style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%;">designated </span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: large;"><span style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%;">carbonaceous chondrites containing about 3% of its weight in carbon, show various complex carbon-based compounds such as porphyrins, amino acids, purine and pyrimidine bases, and carboxylic acids. This implies a strong evidence for presence of hydrocarbons in the deep past times of planetary bodies that have disintegrated. In 2004, the <b>Cassini-Huygens Mission</b> (<b>NASA</b> and <b>ESA</b>) confirmed abundant hydrocarbons (methane and ethane) on Titan, a satellite (moon) of Saturn as previously suggested by astrophysicist <b><a href="http://origeminorganicadopetroleo.blogspot.com/2011/01/thomas-gold-professional-papers.html" target="_blank">Thomas Gold</a></b>. Titan has hundreds of times more liquid hydrocarbons than all oil and natural gas reserves on Earth according data from </span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; font-size: large;"><b>Cassini-Huygens Mission</b>.</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"><span style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%;"> </span></span><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgbc4RXqv3pfK_e8LzNxw1XeFOeqcQlL6sPiqaJT_1984K3c_9XkQEy99hpfL9tPdkrduGSIZ_ztjzabngj2wHwpzg1qCR4x78SVwYlgCaT2nUHXBerlEkdxO8spHk5iVlGBUYR/s1600/Titan+Seas+and+Lakes.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; display: inline ! important; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" height="311" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgbc4RXqv3pfK_e8LzNxw1XeFOeqcQlL6sPiqaJT_1984K3c_9XkQEy99hpfL9tPdkrduGSIZ_ztjzabngj2wHwpzg1qCR4x78SVwYlgCaT2nUHXBerlEkdxO8spHk5iVlGBUYR/s400/Titan+Seas+and+Lakes.jpg" width="400" /></a></div>
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<b><span class="long_text" lang="en"><span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas"> </span></span></b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"><b>Radar composition image </b></span></span><b style="background-color: white; text-align: right;">of the </b><b style="background-color: white; text-align: right;"> region around the north pole of Titan. </b><b style="background-color: white; text-align: right;"> </b></div>
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<b style="background-color: white; text-align: right;">Most of sea and methane lakes are in </b><b style="background-color: white; text-align: right;">the northern hemisphere </b></div>
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<b><span class="long_text" id="result_box" lang="en"><span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas"> Titan</span><span class="" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">, a moon of</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">Saturn</span><span class="" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">.</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">Contains</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">lakes</span> </span></b><b><span class="long_text" lang="en"><span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">and</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">seas</span> </span></b><b><span class="long_text" lang="en"><span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">of </span></span></b></div>
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<b><span class="long_text" id="result_box" lang="en"><span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas"> liquid hydrocarbons,</span> </span></b><b><span class="long_text" id="result_box" lang="en"><span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">mainly </span></span></b><b><span class="long_text" lang="en"><span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">methane</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">and</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">ethane </span></span></b></div>
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<span style="text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"><b>Titan's atmosphere is mostly nitrogen (98.4%), with the rest being methane (1.6%), and a trace of hydrogen (0.1%). </b></span></span></div>
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<span style="text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"><b>There are also trace amounts of ethane, acetylene, propane, cyanoacetylene, hydrogen cyanide, carbon dioxide, </b></span></span></div>
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<span style="text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"><b>carbon </b></span></span><span style="text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"><b>monoxide, </b></span></span><span style="text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"><b>cyanogen, argon and helium. </b></span></span><b style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',sans-serif; text-align: justify;">Energy from the Sun should have converted </b><b style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',sans-serif; text-align: justify;">all traces of methane </b></div>
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<b style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',sans-serif; text-align: justify;">in Titan's </b><b style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',sans-serif; text-align: justify;">atmosphere into more complex </b><b style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',sans-serif; text-align: justify;">hydrocarbons within 50 million years. </b><b style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS',sans-serif; text-align: justify;">This indicates that methane must be </b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: large;">Jupiter, Mars, Saturn (and its moons Iapetus, Titan, Enceladus), Neptune (Triton), Uranus (Ariel, Miranda, Oberon, Titania, Umbriel), Pluto, Comet Halley, Comet Hyakutake and cosmic dust, Nebulae and Interstellar gas.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-size: small;"><b>Methane in Mars</b></span></span></div>
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<span class="long_text" id="result_box" lang="en" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;"><span class="" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">An interesting approach about possibility of crude oil in Mars can be found at the link below:</span></span><br />
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<span class="long_text" lang="en" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;"><span class="" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas"><a href="http://www.oilonmars.blogspot.no/2012/09/is-there-really-oil-on-mars-within.html" target="_blank">Oil in Mars?</a></span></span><br />
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<span style="font-size: x-large;"><b><u><span lang="EN-US">Cosmic and Planetary abundance of carbon </span></u></b><u><b><span lang="EN-US"><br />
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<span lang="EN-US" style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%; font-size: large;"> The element carbon (C) is the fourth in order of </span><span lang="EN-US" style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%; font-size: large;">cosmological </span><span lang="EN-US" style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%; font-size: large;">abundance, preceded only by hydrogen (H), helium (He) and oxygen (O). The available carbon in the nebula that gave rise to the solar system was built to Earth in the process of <a href="http://unconventionalgeology.blogspot.com.br/2011/09/earths-formation-and-its-interior.html">planetesimal accretion</a>. The primary geochemical differentiation made heavier elements stay concentrated in the nucleus. Partial melting processes in the continued evolution of the mantle, crust, hydrosphere and atmosphere. Most of the </span><span lang="EN-US" style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%; font-size: large;">primordial </span><span lang="EN-US" style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%; font-size: large;">carbon remained in the Earth's mantle.</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"><span class="long_text" id="result_box" lang="en"><span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas"> Tectonic processes</span> of <span class="hps atn" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">high-</span><span class="" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">magnitude</span> </span><span class="long_text" id="result_box" lang="en"><span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">enable</span> </span><span class="long_text" id="result_box" lang="en"><span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">rise</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">of</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">volatiles from the</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">mantle</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">to</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">shallower</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">crustal levels</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">on Earth</span><span class="" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">.</span> R<span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">eactivation</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">of the</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">megastructures</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">in</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">sedimentary basins</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">over</span> its <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">geological history</span> may <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">also</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">promote the upwelling and migration </span><span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">of hydrocarbons</span><span class="" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">.</span></span></span></div>
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<b><span class="long_text short_text" id="result_box" lang="en"><span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">Cosmic abundance</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">of</span> the <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">elements</span></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%; font-size: large;">According to studies performed by <b>Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT)</b> to estimate the distribution of carbon on Earth is:</span><br />
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: large;">Biosphere, oceans, atmosphere ....... 3.7 x 10e+18 moles </span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: large;">Crust </span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: large;">Organic carbon .............................. </span><span style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%; font-size: large;">1100 x </span><span style="font-size: large;">10e+18 moles</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;">Carbonates .................................... 5200 x 10e+18 moles </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;"><b><span lang="EN-US">Mantle</span></b></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"> ....................................... 100000 x 10e+18 moles</span> </span></div>
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<span style="font-size: small;"><b>Earth's Carbon Budget (MIT)</b></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"><span class="long_text" id="result_box" lang="en"><span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas"> <span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Earth's</span></span><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"> </span><span class="hps" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">mantle</span><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"> </span><span class="hps" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">contains</span><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"> </span><span class="hps" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">according that estimating</span><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"> </span><span class="hps" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">about</span><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"> </span><span class="hps" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">20</span><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"> </span><span class="hps" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">times more</span><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"> </span><span class="hps" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">carbon than</span><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"> </span><span class="hps" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">in the superficial layers</span><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"> </span><span class="hps" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">of the planet</span><span class="" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">.</span><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"> </span><span class="hps" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">This</span><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"> </span><span class="hps" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">carbon within </span><span class="hps" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">the</span><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"> </span><span class="hps" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">mantle</span><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"> </span><span class="hps" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">is</span><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"> </span><span class="hps" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">in the</span><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"> </span><span class="hps" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">oxidized</span><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"> </span><span class="hps" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">form</span><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"> </span><span class="hps" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">such as</span><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"> </span><span class="hps" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">carbon dioxide</span><span class="" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">,</span><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"> </span><span class="hps" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">carbonates; and</span><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"> </span><span class="hps" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">not</span><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"> </span><span class="hps" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">oxidized</span><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"> </span><span class="hps" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">as</span><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"> </span><span class="hps" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">diamonds</span><span class="" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">,</span><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"> hydrocarbons (</span><span class="hps" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">oil and natural gas)</span><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"> </span><span class="hps" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">and</span><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"> </span><span class="hps" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">possibly</span><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"> </span><span class="hps" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">metal</span><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"> </span><span class="hps" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">carbides</span><span class="hps" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">.</span></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large; line-height: normal;"><span class="long_text" id="result_box" lang="en"><span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas"> There is</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">a</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">serious</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">problem when</span> we <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">use the</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">word</span> <span class="hps atn" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">"</span><span class="" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">organic carbon</span><span class="" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">"</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">or</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">organic chemistry.</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">Dr.</span> <b><a href="http://origeminorganicadopetroleo.blogspot.com/2011/01/thomas-gold-professional-papers.html" target="_blank"><span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">Thomas</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">Gold</span></a></b> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">reminds us that</span> we <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">can</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">read</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">a</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">whole</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">book</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">of organic chemistry</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">without</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">mentioning</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">any</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">organism</span> <span class="hps atn" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">(</span><span class="" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">biology)</span><span class="" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">.</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">A</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">rock</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">that</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">contains</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">carbon</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">does not mean</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">that</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">all</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">or</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">part of</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">this</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">carbon</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">is</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">of biological origin</span><span class="" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">,</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">i.e</span>. <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">carbon</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">of real organic biological origin</span><span class="" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">,</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">fossil</span><span class="" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">.</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">This</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">carbon</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">may</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">have migrated</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">in the form</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">as</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">hydrocarbons</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">and</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">inorganic</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">interacted</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">with</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">the</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">rock</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">at</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">low pressure</span><span class="" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">,</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">including</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">reworking</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">by</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">deep biosphere</span><span class="" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">,</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">by</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">microorganisms</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">that</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">feed on</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">hydrocarbons</span> <span class="hps atn" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">(</span><span class="" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">archaea</span><span class="" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">)</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">which</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">also</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">leave</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">their fingerprints </span><span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">as</span> <span class="hps atn" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">(</span><span class="" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">biomarkers</span><span class="" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">)</span><span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">. </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;">Therefore, also the so-called geochemical analyzes of total organic carbon (TOC) in rocks such as shales, actually, do not refer to the organic carbon content of biological origin (as the traditional view would hold), but the analysis of carbon originating from primordial and allocthonous hydrocarbons that migrated from deep sources and are present in these laminates shales. This then leads to a wrong reasoning for suggesting that hydrocarbons would be formed miraculously inside the so-called "source rocks". Therefore unconventional hydrocarbon accumulations in United States such as shale gas (e.g. in Marcellus, Barnett, Bakken, Eagle Ford, Fayetteville, Woodford, Niobrara and all others) and also </span><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;">oil</span><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;">shale as Green River are simply microporous reservoirs and not source-rocks. Other high-order nonsense is to imagine that heat by intrusions of magmas that form igneous rocks such as diabase sills would form hydrocarbons in contact with carbonaceous shales.</span></div>
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<span class="long_text" id="result_box"><span style="background-color: white;" title="No processo de migração, a partir de grandes profundidades, os hidrocabonetos ascendem para os níveis crustais mais rasos carreados principalmente por hélio (He), através de falhas no embasamento, onde ocorre subta descompressão."> <span style="font-size: large;"> In the process of migration from greater depths hydrocarbons rise to shallower crustal levels carried by helium (He) and Nitrogen (N</span></span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: large;"><sub>2</sub></span><span style="font-size: large;"><span class="long_text" id="result_box"><span style="background-color: white;" title="No processo de migração, a partir de grandes profundidades, os hidrocabonetos ascendem para os níveis crustais mais rasos carreados principalmente por hélio (He), através de falhas no embasamento, onde ocorre subta descompressão.">), through cracks in the basement, where subtle decompression occurs. </span><span style="background-color: white;" title="Podem, não só alojar-se em rochas porosas, fraturas e ocorrer acumulação como também ficarem aprisionados em rochas laminadas e microporosas como os folhelhos, pois na migração inicial as fases são dominantemente gasosas e os regimes de pressões elevadas auxiliados pela presença de hélio pode fixar">They can stay in porous rocks, fractures and accumulation occurs also trapped in rocks as laminated shales with high </span></span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-size: large;">microporosity</span><span style="background-color: white; font-size: large;" title="Podem, não só alojar-se em rochas porosas, fraturas e ocorrer acumulação como também ficarem aprisionados em rochas laminadas e microporosas como os folhelhos, pois na migração inicial as fases são dominantemente gasosas e os regimes de pressões elevadas auxiliados pela presença de hélio pode fixar">, since the initial migration stages are mostly gas and high pressure systems aided by presence of helium can fix </span><span style="background-color: white; font-size: large;" title="hidrocarbonetos no seio desses folhelhos.">hydrocarbons within these shales.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"><span class="long_text" id="result_box"><span style="background-color: white;" title="hidrocarbonetos no seio desses folhelhos."> It should be noted that the material of biological origin the Earth's surface has a low rate of preservation, initially due decomposition by microorganisms and mainly by oxidation processes. Also in biological detritus dominate biological molecules and other carbohydrate oxidized and no properly hydrocarbon compounds, such as molecules that are dominated in oil and natural gas. Hydrocarbons present in shales are very rich in hydrogen and incompatible with intrinsic biological derivation.</span></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"><span class="long_text"><span style="background-color: white;" title="hidrocarbonetos no seio desses folhelhos."> Presence of complex molecules with high molecular weight, for instance, asphaltenes and helium gas, sulfur, and metals such as nickel and vanadium are also not linked to biological materials.</span></span></span></div>
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<span class="long_text"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;" title="hidrocarbonetos no seio desses folhelhos."><b>Proposed molecular structure of asphaltene (Altamirano <i>et al</i>., 1986)</b></span></span></div>
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<span class="long_text"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;" title="hidrocarbonetos no seio desses folhelhos."><b>Asphaltene is a very complex Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbon with high molecular weight</b></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large; line-height: normal;"><span class="long_text"><span style="background-color: white;" title="hidrocarbonetos no seio desses folhelhos."><br />
Many people linked to geosciences claim that oil and or gas would be formed, for instance, in carbonaceous shales, which are argillaceous thin bedded and laminated rocks. However, oil, gas or bitumen that may be associated with a shale can be allochthonous material and therefore not formed <i>in situ</i>. The hydrocarbons that migrate to the laminated rocks also promote conservation of fossils and the high abundance of these latter may be related to local emanation of hydrocarbons that reached earlier fossiliferous layers. If not consider these arguments above leads to confusion and misinterpretation that oil would form from biologic sources and its origin would produce the so-called "<a href="http://unconventionalgeology.blogspot.com.br/2011/10/origin-of-hydrocarbons-and-natural-gas.html">fossil fuels</a>" </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large; line-height: normal;"><span class="long_text" id="result_box" lang="en"><span class="hps atn" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">(</span><i><b><span class="" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">sic</span></b></i><span class="" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">)</span><span class="" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas"> which is nonsense.</span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large; line-height: normal;"><span class="long_text" lang="en"><span class="" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;">Unconventional shale gas actually is not originated intrinsically within shales. These carbonaceous shales as for instance those from Appalachian basin are not source of gas, but merely reservoirs of primordial gases which migrated from great depths, by deep faults, reach these shales at basin level and are disseminated in their micropores and microfractures. This area is also stage of high upwelling of hydrocarbons where occur several coal mines, conventional gas and oil fields, within-plate earthquakes, Mississippi Valley-Type deposits associated to hydrothermal dolomite HTD.</span></div>
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<b><u> </u></b><span style="color: blue; font-size: x-large;"><b><u><span lang="EN-US">Cold planetary formation </span></u></b><u><b><span lang="EN-US"><br />
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<span lang="EN-US" style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%; font-size: large;"> In the late Nineteenth Century it was believed that early Earth was extremely hot, completely melted during its formation. Many planetary scientists now believe that formation of the Earth was relatively cold. Recent studies in older zircons (4.4 billion years) suggest that surface of planet had low temperatures, enough to maintain liquid water. The Moon possibly would have formed shortly after <a href="http://unconventionalgeology.blogspot.com.br/2011/09/earths-formation-and-its-interior.html">Earth's accretion processes</a> by a giant impact by a Mars-sized body.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: x-large;"><b><u><span lang="EN-US">Existence of hydrocarbons deposits </span></u></b><u><b><span lang="EN-US"><br />
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<span lang="EN-US" style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%; font-size: large;"> The conventional oil reserves would disappear in no more than a million years, based on the rate of escape of hydrocarbons to the surface (seeps, seepage). If there are a limited number of sources of hydrocarbon deposits in the context of geologic time, it would be a surprising and amazing coincidence to know that there still are now. If deposits are feeding on themselves, their present existence becomes less surprising.</span><br />
<span lang="EN-US" style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%; font-size: large;"> The crucial issue for the concept of the organic model is how it could support any mechanism to supply oil reserves faster than its exhaustion. Geological facts collected from all oil basins testify that, geologically, the fields of oil and gas are formed very quickly, which contradicts the time required for maturation of organic rocks is based concepts as biogenic. This is a crucial observation for this traditional model.</span><br />
<span lang="EN-US" style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%; font-size: large;"> Some believe that biogenic origin has a difficult mission for the hydrocarbon deposits were not as plentiful as the sources are largely abiogenic. Thinking that mantle volatiles are alleged as rare in the superficial layers of the Earth is interesting to note that solid rock of the lower crust and upper mantle cover vast desert areas (as examples granulitic belts and ophiolite). In addition, outcrops of rocks off the mantle of the ocean floor and throughout the global system of mid-ocean ridges are plentiful on this planet. Also, it is often assumed that <a href="http://unconventionalgeology.blogspot.com.br/2011/09/origin-of-earthquakes.html">earthquakes</a> cause massive discharges of hydrocarbons (e.g. oil seeps''catastrophic''oil slicks in the oceans) due to rupture of impermeable rocks, however, it is considered that the constant fluid seeps always migrate to the surface that day-to-day, called the ''cold'' outgassing such moves as much or even more help in relation to catastrophic events.</span><br />
<span lang="EN-US" style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%; font-size: large;"> Some think that this argument would be somewhat strange because there is evidence of fossils in tar pits (lakes of bitumen) covering a wide range of periods and therefore many of them are important sources of fossils. </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: large;">This certainly proves the fossil organic matter replenishment through geological time (hundreds of millions of years) with which the biogenic origin alone explains(<i>sic</i>). However, this has nothing in common with the rapid formation of gas and oil fields (around 10 to 40 thousand years), and geologically rapid deterioration.</span><br />
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: large;"><span style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%;"> Hydrocarbons disappear quickly while there was dissipation, evaporation, and deep oxidation and intense biodegradation. </span>So the clue to solving this problem lies in the global balance of carbon and hydrogen flows and exchange rates. <span style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%;">When scientists and researchers give attention to these facts and better understand the Earth system, integrating the knowledge of physics, astrophysics and astronomy will be clear that hydrocarbons (oil and natural gas) are primordial materials, and therefore prior to <a href="http://unconventionalgeology.blogspot.com.br/2012/02/hydrocabons-and-origin-of-life-in-earth.html">emergence of life</a>.</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: x-large;"><b><u><span lang="EN-US">Methane on Earth </span></u></b><u><b><span lang="EN-US"><br />
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<span lang="EN-US" style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%; font-size: large;"> Methane <a href="http://unconventionalgeology.blogspot.com.br/2011/10/isotopic-composition-of-hydrocarbon.html">gas</a> (</span><span lang="EN-US" style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%; font-size: large;">CH<sub>4</sub></span><span lang="EN-US" style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%; font-size: large;">)</span><span lang="EN-US" style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%; font-size: large;"> is typically found on Earth, if not in natural gas deposits, deposits of methane hydrate under high pressure in the abyssal plains of oceans, often reworked by bacteria levels in most shallow gas hydrates frozen soils under permafrost </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: large;">or from degradation of biogenic materials. Methane is a greenhouse gas that causes greenhouse effect, about 20 times more potent than CO<sub>2</sub> (carbon dioxide).</span><br />
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: large;"> It is possible that the major extinctions of life that occurred in Earth's history are due to the increase of methane in the atmosphere through geological processes, such as strong sea level fall or meteorite impacts, which could destabilize gas hydrates in the oceans. It is possible that this situation would have occurred either during the Permo-Triassic crisis, with fragmentation of the supercontinental masses or, for instance, also by meteorite impacts during the transition from the Cretaceous to Paleogene (Old Lower Tertiary).</span><br />
<span lang="EN-US" style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%; font-size: large;"> Methane reacts with oxygen to produce carbon dioxide when it interacts close to the volcanoes of magma (lava). <span style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%;">Methane reacts with water, oxygen and calcium to form carbonate cements and concretions in sedimentary reservoirs of oil.</span></span><br />
<span lang="EN-US" style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%; font-size: large;"> Microbial life that live inside the Earth or near the </span><span lang="EN-US" style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%; font-size: large;">sea- </span><span lang="EN-US" style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%; font-size: large;">bottom feed on methane, creating spectacular ecosystems, with bizarre life forms and still little studied, such as chemosynthetic communities that associated deepwater coral mounds.</span><br />
<span lang="EN-US" style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%; font-size: large;"> Primordial methane interacts with argillaceous rocks rich in organic matter (kerogen) and can produce smaller contributions to formation of hydrocarbon oil, due to production of real biomarker (e.g. hopanes, terpanes which are derived from cell walls of bacteria) and unsaturated </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: large;">(alkenes), but not exactly oil. Methane<span style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%;"> can also interact with <a href="http://unconventionalgeology.blogspot.com.br/2012/01/peat-formation.html">peat</a> swamps forming deposits of coal, bringing great depths metals like mercury (as methyl or dimethyl mercury compounds), arsenic, nickel, vanadium, cadmium, lead, selenium, uranium, among others.</span></span></div>
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<b><span class="long_text" id="result_box" lang="en"><span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">Hopanes</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">are</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">a</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">class of</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">isoprenoids</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">present in</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">small</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">quantities</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">in</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">oil</span><span title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">.</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">Its origin</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">is</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">related</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">to</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">traces</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">of</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">cell walls</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">of bacteria (archaea)</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">that</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">feed</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">and</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">die</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">in the midst of</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">abiogenic</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">primordial</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">hydrocarbons</span><span title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">.</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">These</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">traces</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">are</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">called</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">biomarkers</span></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%; font-size: large;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"> </span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span">Methane (and the same or carbonates from methane oxidized) can polymerize inside the Earth through reactions catalyzed Fischer-Tropsch type synthesis, forming liquid and <a href="http://unconventionalgeology.blogspot.com.br/2011/10/isotopic-composition-of-hydrocarbon.html">gaseous hydrocarbons</a> (oil) by serpentinization of peridotite (dunite) of the mantle</span> </span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%; font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;">produces hydrogen in presence of metal catalysts such as nickel, iron, etc.</span><br />
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: large;"> Sudden shifts large amounts of methane in Earth's interior can cause large <a href="http://unconventionalgeology.blogspot.com.br/2011/09/origin-of-earthquakes.html">earthquakes</a>, sometimes accompanied by helium and radon gas, as pointed out by scientist <b><a href="http://origeminorganicadopetroleo.blogspot.com/2011/01/thomas-gold-professional-papers.html" target="_blank">Thomas Gold</a></b>. The sudden escape of methane to the surface land surface or on the seas can also be a cause of some plane crashes and shipwrecks. Loss of support could occur if the route of vessels or aircraft coincides with a large flux of methane which would result in a decrease in the density of air or water and displacement of oxygen that can cause fail in combustion engines.</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: large;"> Methane has a wide range of thermodynamic stability. Experiments of high pressure and temperature </span><span style="font-size: large;"><span class="long_text short_text" id="result_box" lang="en"><span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">confirm</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">this</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">statement</span></span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: large;">.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: x-large;"><b><u><span lang="EN-US">Unusual deposits </span></u></b><u><b><span lang="EN-US"><br />
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<span lang="EN-US" style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%; font-size: large;"> Hydrocarbon deposits are found in areas condemned by orthodox traditional biogenic theory. Some oil fields are being fed back from deep sources, although this is not a rule for a "biogenic source rock" deep.</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%; font-size: large;"><span class="long_text" id="result_box" lang="en"><span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas"> Example</span><span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas"> noted</span> of <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">oil field that refilling</span> was <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">reported</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">in</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">Eugene</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">Island,</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">Block</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">330,</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">in</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">the Gulf</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">of</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">Mexico</span><span class="" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">.</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">The Russians</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">also</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">have found</span> refilling at <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">Romashkinokoye</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">supergiant</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">oilfield</span><span class="" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">,</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">like the Americans</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">also</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">saw</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">the same phenomenon</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">in</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">Prudhoe</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">Basin</span><span class="" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">,</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">North</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">Slope</span><span class="" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">, Alaska</span><span class="" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">.</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">This</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">is</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">a</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">common phenomenon</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">in most</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">fields</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">of oil</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">and</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">natural</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">gas</span><span class="" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">.</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">When</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">the critical pressure</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">is exceeded</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">or</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">when an</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas"><a href="http://unconventionalgeology.blogspot.com.br/2011/09/origin-of-earthquakes.html">earthquake</a> </span>occur <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">can</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">be </span><span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">replenishment</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">of the</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">reservoirs</span> if <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">which</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">the structural framework </span><span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">allows it.</span></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%; font-size: large;"> In the White Tiger</span><span lang="EN-US" style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%; font-size: large;"> oilfield</span><span lang="EN-US" style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%; font-size: large;">, Vietnam, and many oilfields in Russia, oil and natural gas are produced from reservoirs in </span><span style="background-color: white; font-size: large;">granites or gneisses of</span><span lang="EN-US" style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%; font-size: large;"> the basement, with some wells showing presence of hydrocarbons over a thousand feet below the top of the granitic basement. In the case of Vietnam, there is no "source rock" below and according suggestion of the biogenic view would have to be a migration of tens of kilometers to the oil migrated laterally, when through a logical analysis, becomes easy to conclude according abiogenic view that migration of hydrocarbons </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: large;">is from the deep fault affecting the basement and allow communication with the mantle as all natural hydrocarbon accumulations (oil and natural gas fields).</span></div>
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<b><span class="long_text" id="result_box" lang="en"><span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">Model</span> </span></b><b><span class="long_text" id="result_box" lang="en"><span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">of</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">White</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">Tiger </span></span></b><b><span class="long_text" id="result_box" lang="en"><span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">Field</span></span></b><b><span class="long_text" id="result_box" lang="en"><span class="" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">, Vietnam</span><span title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">.</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">Oil production</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">is done</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">in</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">fractured</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">granitic rock</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">of the basement</span><span title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">,</span> </span></b><br />
<b><span class="long_text" lang="en"><span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">more than</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">1000 meters</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">below the</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">top</span></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"><span class="long_text" id="result_box" lang="en"><span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas"> <span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">The</span></span><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"> </span><span class="hps atn" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">"</span><span class="" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">black</span><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"> </span><span class="hps" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">shales</span><span class="" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">"</span><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"> </span><span class="hps" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">of</span><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"> </span><span class="hps" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">the</span><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"> </span><span class="hps" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">Archean</span><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"> </span><span class="hps" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">Pilbara Craton</span><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"> </span><span class="hps atn" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">(</span><span class="" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">3.25</span><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"> </span><span class="hps" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">Ga</span><span class="" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">)</span><span class="" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">,</span><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"> </span><span class="hps" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">Australia</span><span class="" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">,</span><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"> </span><span class="hps" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">have</span><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"> </span><span class="hps" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">fluid inclusion</span><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"> </span><span class="hps" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">oil</span><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"> </span><span class="hps" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">and</span><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"> </span><span class="hps" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">pyrobitumen</span><span class="" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">.</span><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"> </span><span class="hps" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">There</span><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"> </span><span class="hps" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">is much evidence</span><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"> </span><span class="hps" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">of</span><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"> </span><span class="hps" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">bitumen</span><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"> </span><span class="hps" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">in</span><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"> </span><span class="hps" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">very old rocks</span><span class="" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">,</span><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"> </span><span class="hps" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">mainly</span><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"> </span><span class="hps" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">associated</span><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"> </span><span class="hps" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">mineralizations</span><span class="" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">.</span><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"> </span><span class="hps" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">The</span><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"> </span><span class="hps" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">primordial</span><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"> </span><span class="hps" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">hydrocarbons</span><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"> </span><span class="hps" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">also</span><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"> </span><span class="hps" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">may</span><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"> </span><span class="hps" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">lead</span><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"> </span><span class="hps" style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas"><a href="http://unconventionalgeology.blogspot.com.br/2011/12/hydrocarbons-and-metallogenesis.html">metal compounds</a></span><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"> </span><span class="hps" 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<span style="font-size: x-large;"><b><u><span lang="EN-US">Microbes deep inside the Earth </span></u></b><u><b><span lang="EN-US"><br />
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: large;"> Microbial life has been discovered 4.2 kilometers deep in Alaska and 5.2 kilometers in Sweden. <span style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%;">Metanophillic organisms are known a long time and recently found microbial life in Yellowstone Park, USA, and are based on the metabolism of hydrogen. </span>Other bodies deep and warm environments (extremophiles bacteria, archaea) remain to be discovered and those who support extreme environments such as hypersaline lakes. <span style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%;">Proponents of Abiogenic Theory or inorganic origin of oil indicates that the deep biosphere is responsible for biomarkers present in the oil, i.e., these biomarkers are actually organic contaminants of natural hydrocarbons. According to scientist <b><a href="http://origeminorganicadopetroleo.blogspot.com/2011/01/thomas-gold-professional-papers.html" target="_blank">Thomas Gold</a></b>, the deep biosphere biomass surpasses all mass of surface biosphere and, of course, primordial hydrocarbons are the food of these deep microbes.</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-size: small;"><b> </b></span></span><b style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS",sans-serif;"><span class="long_text" id="result_box" lang="en"><span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">Microbial life</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">feed</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">by</span> primordial hydrocarbons <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">in</span><span title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas"> depth</span>s<span title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">.</span> An <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">artistic conception</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">of </span><span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">Deep</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">Hot</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">Biosphere</span> <span class="hps atn" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas"> </span></span></b><br />
<b style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS",sans-serif;"><span class="long_text" id="result_box" lang="en"><span class="hps atn" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">(</span><span class="" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">The Deep</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">Hot</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">Biosphere</span><span class="" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">,</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">Thomas Gold,</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">1999</span><span title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">)</span></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-size: x-large;"><b><u><span lang="EN-US">Helium </span></u></b><u><b><span lang="EN-US"><br />
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: large;"> Association of helium in natural gas fields and oil is quite common. <span style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%;">While <sup>3</sup>He is a primordial gas found in mantle, </span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: large;"><span style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%;"><sup>4</sup></span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: large;"><span style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%;">He is also generated from the radioactive decay of uranium.</span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: large;"><span style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%;"> Helium is commonly associated with very light oils, often accompanied by nitrogen and methane in natural gas deposits. These gases aid in the migration of liquid oil and other gases from deep levels in mantle to </span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: large;"><span style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%;">shallower levels in crust.</span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: large;"> No known biological process produces helium, so its close relationship with oil is a strong argument favorable for abiogenic theory. Commercial accumulations of helium are generally rare, however, are always associated with oil and natural gas. <span style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%;">In the Panhandle-Hugoton </span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-size: large;">gas field,</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: large;"><span style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%;"> in </span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: large;"><span style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%;">Texas</span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: large;"><span style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%;">-Kansas-Oklahoma, there is significant production of helium. </span>There are also other helium bearing gas fields such as in Algeria, Russia </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: large;">and </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: large;"> Qatar-Iran with important content.</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: large;"> Retention of helium requires specific conditions, such as, existence of an extremely effective seal rock overlying reservoir, usually <a href="http://unconventionalgeology.blogspot.com.br/2011/11/hydrothermal-salt.html">salt</a> sequences (also called "evaporites"). The radiogenic helium formed in crustal levels would not itself enough pressure to embed from the rocks beside the reservoirs of methane and light oils. <span style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%;">The most logical assumption is therefore that migration comes from its deep (mantle) bringing other complex hydrocarbons. Sometimes helium occurs associated with carbon dioxide gas, both primordial.</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: x-large;"><b><u><span lang="EN-US">Trace element and associated metals </span></u></b><u><b><span lang="EN-US"><br />
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<span lang="EN-US" style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%; font-size: large;"> Nickel (Ni), Vanadium (V), Lead (Pb), arsenic (As), cadmium (Cd), Mercury (Hg), Cobalt (Co), Chromium (Cr), and other <a href="http://unconventionalgeology.blogspot.com.br/2011/12/hydrocarbons-and-metallogenesis.html">metals</a> are often found in petroleum, mainly </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: large;">Nickel and Vanadium. Some heavy oils, such as some crude oil from Venezuela, have up to reach 45% of Vanadium (pentoxide) in the ashes, values which are even commercials. These metals and their paragenesis are common in Earth's mantle.</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: large;"><span style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%;"> These trace elements are also called </span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: large;"><span style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%;">"abiomarkers"</span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: large;"><span style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%;">, or non-</span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: large;"><span style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%;">biomarkers and</span></span><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%;"> by study of the paragenesis of these metals would be possible to establish signatures for identification of origin of crude oil (petroleum).</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"><span class="long_text" id="result_box" lang="en"><span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas"> P</span><span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">resence</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">of</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">mercury</span> <span class="hps atn" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">(</span><span class="" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">Hg</span><span class="" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">)</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">is</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">remarkable</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">in</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">many</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">gas fields</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">and</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">also</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">oil</span><span class="" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">,</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">oil</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">shales</span><span class="" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">,</span> </span></span><span style="font-size: large;"><span class="long_text" id="result_box" lang="en"><a href="http://www.blogger.com/goog_1510590168"><span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">black</span> </a></span></span><span style="font-size: large;"><span class="long_text" id="result_box" lang="en"><span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas"><a href="http://unconventionalgeology.blogspot.com.br/2012/01/origin-of-black-coal.html">coal</a></span> and also <a href="http://unconventionalgeology.blogspot.com.br/2012/01/peat-formation.html">peat</a><span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">.</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">Mercury</span><span class="" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">,</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">as already mentioned,</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">can</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">migrate</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">in the form</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">as</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">organometallic compounds</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">such as</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">methyl</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">or</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">dimethyl</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">mercury</span><span class="" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">.</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">It is</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">a</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">highly</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">toxic</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">element</span><span class="" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">,</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">biocide</span><span class="" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">,</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">and</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">has</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">no</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">intrinsic relationship</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">with biological activity.</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">Even</span><span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas"></span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">mercury</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">present</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">in</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar 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<span lang="EN-US" style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%; font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large; line-height: normal;"> Analysis of 22 trace elements in 77 oils, chemically correlate best with composition of chondritic meteorites, serpentinized peridotite in the mantle and fertile primitive mantle than oceanic crust or continental, and show no correlation with the distributions of the chemicals in sea</span><span lang="EN-US" style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%; font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large; line-height: normal;">water </span><span lang="EN-US" style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%; font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large; line-height: normal;"> (<b>Szatmari</b> <i>et al</i>., 2005). For an interesting and extensive approach about trace metals in petroleum see </span><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;">Mantle-like Trace Element Composition of </span><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;">Petroleum – Contributions from </span><span lang="EN-US" style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%; font-size: large;"><span style="background-color: transparent;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Serpentinizing Peridotites, see</span></span><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"> </span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;"><a href="http://cdn.intechweb.org/pdfs/14082.pdf" target="_blank"><b>Szatmari </b><i>et al</i>., 2011</a>.</span></div>
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<b><span class="long_text" id="result_box" lang="en"><span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">Comparison</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">of</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">average</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">trace element</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">of</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">Brazil's</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">67</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">oil</span> <span class="hps atn" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">(</span><span title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">ppb</span><span title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">)</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">with</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">chondrite</span><span title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">,</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">UB</span><span title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">-N</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">serpentinized</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">mantle</span><span title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">,</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">primitive</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">mantle</span><span title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">,</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">spinel</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">peridotite</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">mantle</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">and</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">depleted mantle</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">(ppm</span><span title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">)</span><span title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">.</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">The</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">correlations</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">are better</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">with</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">the</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">serpentinized</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">mantle</span><span title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">.</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">Szatmari</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">et</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">al.</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">(2007</span><span class="" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">)</span></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-size: x-large;"><b><u><span lang="EN-US">Diamondoids </span></u></b><u><b><span lang="EN-US"><br />
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: large;"> Tiny diamondoids occur in petroleum (oil, gas and condensate). <span style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%;">Diamondoids are molecules that have a similar arrangement of the structure of atoms as diamonds, that is the cubic crystalline system, and suspected that its origin is also linked to the same environments of origin of kimberlites and lamproites, which can carry natural diamonds, from the ultra high pressures and temperature in the Earth's mantle, bringing them to the surface. </span>These diamondoids found more abundantly in condensates, which are very light oils. Diamondoids are excellent raw material for nanotechnology, especially higher diamondoids. They<span style="background-color: white;"> </span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white; font-size: large;"><span class="hps" style="color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">are</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"> </span><span class="hps" style="color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">probably the</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"> </span><span class="hps" style="color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">most noble</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"> </span><span class="hps" style="color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">products</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"> </span><span class="hps" style="color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">present in</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"> </span><span class="hps" style="color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">natural hydrocarbons.</span></span></div>
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<span class="long_text" id="result_box" lang="en" style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"><b><span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">Diamondoid</span> tiny </b></span><span class="long_text" id="result_box" lang="en"><b style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS",sans-serif;"><span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">crystals</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">have</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">an ubiquitous presence in</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">hydrocarbons</span><span class="" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">,</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">mainly in</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">gas</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">and</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">condensates</span></b></span><br />
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<span style="font-size: x-large;"><b><u><span lang="EN-US">Hydrogen </span></u></b><u><b><span lang="EN-US"><br />
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<span lang="EN-US" style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%; font-size: large;"> Petroleum is composed mainly of alkanes (n-alkanes, paraffins). <b>Sir Robert Robinson</b>, British scientist and Nobel Laureate in Chemistry (1947) studied the makeup of the natural oil in great detail nnand concluded that there was much excess hydrogen and therefore it would be difficult its origin as product of organic detritus from plants or animals. Olefins (alkenes), which are unsaturated hydrocarbons, are what should be expected if the source was organic. </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-size: large;">He then wrote:</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: small;"><b>Sir Robert Robinson (1886-1975)</b></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: x-large;"><b style="color: blue;"><i><span lang="EN-US">“</span></i></b><b style="color: blue;"><i><span lang="EN-US">Actually it cannot be too strongly emphasized that petroleum does not present the composition picture expected from modified biogenic products, and all the arguments from the constituents of ancient oils fit equally well, or better, with the conception of a primordial hydrocarbon mixture to which bio-products have been added.</span></i></b><b style="color: blue;"><i><span lang="EN-US">”</span></i></b><b style="color: blue;"><i><span lang="EN-US"> </span></i></b></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 18pt;">— </span><span style="font-size: x-large;"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;">Sir Robert Robinson (Nobel Prize in Chemistry, 1947)</span></b></span><br />
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<span style="font-size: x-large;"><b><u><span lang="EN-US">Thermodynamics </span></u></b><u><b><span lang="EN-US"><br />
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: large;"> The Second <span style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%;">Law of Thermodynamics prohibits the spontaneous formation of hydrocarbons heavier than methane at low pressures. Thermodynamic calculations and various experimental studies performed in Ukraine, Russia and the United States confirmed that n-alkanes (common components in oil) do not evolve spontaneously from methane at pressures typically found in sedimentary basins, so the theory for the origin of </span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: large;"><span style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%;">abiogenic </span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: large;"><span style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%;">hydrocarbons suggests deep generation (below 150-200 km, according to studies leading by Dr<b>. </b><a href="http://www.pnas.org/content/99/17/10976.full.pdf" target="_blank">J.F. Kenney and Russian colleagues</a>.</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: small;"><b><span class="long_text" id="result_box" lang="en"><span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">Stability of hydrocarbons at temperatures and pressures in the Earth (from Chekaliuk, 1976). </span></span><span class="long_text" id="result_box" lang="en"><span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">Methane (CH4) is the most stable molecule of the hydrocarbons, most of it would survive at all levels down to 300 kilometers, provide the temperature there did not exceed 2000 </span></span></b></span><b><span style="font-size: small;"><sup><span lang="EN" style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">o</span></sup></span><span lang="EN" style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"></span><span lang="EN" style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"></span></b><b><span lang="EN" style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;">C</span></b><span style="font-size: small;"><b><span class="long_text" id="result_box" lang="en"><span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">. For the other components of natural petroleum-paraffins, aromatics and naphthenes - the percentages in equilibrium are shown, these would be the values most likely to be produced from a mixture of hydrogen and carbon. Methane streaming from great depth could bring up, in solution, significant fractions of these petroleum components.</span></span></b></span></div>
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<b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%; font-size: 16pt;"> </span></i></b><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif; font-size: small;"><b style="color: blue;"><i><span lang="EN-US"> </span></i></b></span><br />
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif; font-size: small;"><b style="color: blue;"><i><span lang="EN-US"> </span></i></b></span><span style="font-size: medium;"><span class="long_text" id="result_box" lang="en"><span class="hps"> <span style="font-size: large;">Molecules of biological origin have low chemical potential and, in accordance with the laws of thermodynamics, could not transform spontaneously into hydrocarbons heavier than methane, which are molecules of high chemical potential. Studies of thermodynamic stabilities and free energies of Hydrogen-Carbon system conducted by Dr. <b>J.F. Kenney</b> clearly demonstrate impossibility of biological organic matter form natural hydrocarbons. Biological molecules in general are oxidized, such as carbohydrates and never could form oil.</span></span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"><span class="long_text" id="result_box" lang="en"><span class="hps"> Thinking that, for example, that the jet engines which raise a plane in the air and their strength would be driven by "<a href="http://unconventionalgeology.blogspot.com.br/2011/10/origin-of-hydrocarbons-and-natural-gas.html">fossil fuels</a>" is a completely silly notion.</span></span></span><span style="font-size: medium;"><span class="long_text" id="result_box" lang="en"><span class="hps"><span style="font-size: large;"> </span></span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: medium;"><span class="long_text" id="result_box" lang="en"><span class="hps"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif; font-size: small;"><b style="color: blue;"><i><span lang="EN-US"> </span></i></b></span></div>
<span style="font-size: x-large;"><b style="color: blue;"><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;">“</span></i></b><b style="color: blue;"><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;">The Hydrogen-Carbon system does not evolve spontaneously at pressures less than 30 Kbar, even in the most favorable environmental conditions. The HC system evolves hydrocarbons under pressures found in Earth's mantle at temperatures consistent with that environment</span></i></b><b style="color: blue;"><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;">”</span></i></b></span><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 18pt;"><span style="color: blue;"> </span> </span></i></b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 18pt;">— </span><a href="http://www.pnas.org/content/99/17/10976.full.pdf" target="_blank"><span style="font-size: x-large;"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%; font-family: "times new roman" , serif;">J. </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;">F. Kenney</span></b></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-size: x-large;"><b> and collaborators, 2002 </b></span></span></a><br />
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<span style="font-size: x-large;"><b><u><span lang="EN-US">Biology </span></u></b><u><span lang="EN-US"><b><br />
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: large;"> Life as we know it is fundamentally based on carbon. <span style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%;">The primitive organisms (archaea) derive energy from primordial methane or oil (hydrocarbons) that are deep within the Earth. </span>Many microbes also draw oxygen from reduction of iron oxides </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: large;">and produce magnetite</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: large;"> or sulfates forming hydrogen sulfide (H<sub>2</sub>S). This deep biosphere as contaminants in oil shares and becomes the so-called biomarkers found in natural petroleum.</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: large;"><span style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%;"> Photosynthesis is a very complicated process that primitive organisms have evolved to assist them in the conquest and survival on the planet surface. </span>This may have occurred when the local source of hydrocarbons may have ceased. The astrophysicist <b><a href="http://origeminorganicadopetroleo.blogspot.com/2011/01/thomas-gold-professional-papers.html" target="_blank">Thomas Gold</a></b> mentioned, according <a href="http://unconventionalgeology.blogspot.com.br/2012/01/deep-hot-biosphere.html">Deep Hot Biosphere</a> Theory that the primitive kind of bacteria (archaea) invented photosynthesis to conquer the surface to make your own food, i.e. autotrophy.</span></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: small;"> </span><span class="long_text short_text" id="result_box" lang="en" style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"><span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">Phylogenetic Tree</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">of Life</span></span></b><br />
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<b><span class="long_text" id="result_box" lang="en"><span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">Black</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">smokers</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">on the</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">ocean floor</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">and</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">associated</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">chemosynthetic</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">communities</span></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-size: x-large;"><b><u><span lang="EN-US">Serpentinization and chemical synthesis of oil - Fischer-Tropsch Synthesis </span></u></b><u><b><span lang="EN-US"><br />
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: large;"> Another possible formation of inorganic oil is by the Fischer-Tropsch Synthesis. The Fischer-Tropsch catalysis converts carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide and methane in various forms of liquid hydrocarbons. <span style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%;">Carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide is generated by the partial oxidation of coal or fuel wood. </span>This process was developed and used extensively in World War II by Germany to produce fuels which had limited access to oil supplies. Is still used today in South Africa by <b>Sasol </b>to produce diesel from coal.</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: large;"><span style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%;"> Serpentinization of ultramafic peridotite reactions involving carbon-rich Fischer-Tropsch and is believed to occur at depth where the mantle peridotite is hydrolyzed becoming serpentinite while there is hydrogen evolution. </span>In presence of transition metal catalysts (Fe, Ni, Co), hydrogen reacts with carbon dioxide from <a href="http://unconventionalgeology.blogspot.com.br/2011/12/origin-of-carbonate-rocks.html">carbonate rocks</a> and result in n-alkane hydrocarbons including linear saturated hydrocarbons, alcohols, aldehydes, ketones, aromatic and cyclic compounds. <span style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%;">It is also possible that the methane in the deepest regions of the mantle can be polymerized by the Fischer-Tropsch Synthesis forming n-alkanes and other hydrocarbons.</span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: large;"><span style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%;"> </span></span><span style="background-color: white;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: large;"><span class="hps" style="color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">Although this type of</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"> </span><span class="hps" style="color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">catalytic reaction</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"> </span><span class="hps" style="color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">can form</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"> </span><span class="hps" style="color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">some hydrocarbons in laboratory and industrial scale</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"> </span><span class="hps" style="color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">with relatively low</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"> </span><span class="hps" style="color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">pressure and temperature</span><span class="" style="color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">, the final products</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"> </span><span class="hps" style="color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">are not exactly</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"> natural petroleum</span><span class="hps" style="color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">.</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"> </span><span class="hps" style="color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">Thus,</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"> </span><span class="hps" style="color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">these reactions</span><span class="" style="color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">,</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"> </span><span class="hps" style="color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">although not all the</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"> </span><span class="hps" style="color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">molecules in</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"> </span><span class="hps" style="color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">the mixture</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"> </span><span class="hps" style="color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">configure</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"> </span><span class="hps" style="color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">feature of</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"> </span><span class="hps" style="color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">natural oil</span><span class="" style="color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">,</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"> </span><span class="hps" style="color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">could</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"> </span><span class="hps" style="color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">contribute to</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"> </span><span class="hps" style="color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">the formation of</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"> </span><span class="hps" style="color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">hydro</span><span class="" style="color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">-polymerization</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"> </span><span class="hps" style="color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">of methane</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"> </span><span class="hps" style="color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">through </span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: large;">hydrogen</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: large;"> </span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: large;"><span class="hps" style="color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">release </span><span class="hps" style="color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">from</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"> </span><span class="hps" style="color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">serpentinization</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"> </span><span class="hps" style="color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">of</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"> </span><span class="hps" style="color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">upper mantle</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"> </span><span class="hps" style="color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">peridotites,</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"> </span><span class="hps" style="color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">as suggested</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"> </span><span class="hps" style="color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">by</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"> </span><b><span class="hps" style="color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;">Szatmari</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"> </span></b><span class="hps" style="color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif;"><b>(1989)</b>.</span></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: small;"><b><span lang="EN" style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Petroleum synthesis in collision zones. Water and CO<sub>2</sub>, expelled from underthrust shelf carbonates, cause serpentinization and carbonatization in basal peridotites of overriding oceanic lithosphere (Ophiolite suite), with attendant hydrogen and hydrocarbon formation. (Szatmari, 1989)</span></b></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: x-large;"><b><span lang="EN-US"><u style="color: blue;">Association of oil with deep structures </u></span></b></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: large;"> Oil and gas fields are mainly found on the deep structures present in the basement, related to lithospheric plate boundaries, structures of meteorite impact (impact craters). <span style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%;">This association may be observed according to distribution of oil fields along the arcs, such as Indonesia, Persian Gulf, the Apennines (Italy), Alaska, </span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: large;"><span style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%;">Barbados </span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: large;"><span style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%;">Arch and its continuity to Trinidad and Tobago and Venezuela among others. Divergent margin basins or even aborted rifts, petroleum occurrences are associated with faults of great magnitude that communicate the crust and upper mantle in elevation. </span>Reactivation of important geological structures along the fill of sedimentary basins facilitates migration of hydrocarbons to </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: large;">structural </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: large;">highs where these accumulations can form when they find reservoir rocks and impermeable rocks (seals) above, forming traps.</span><br />
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<span style="font-size: x-large;"><b><u><span lang="EN-US" style="color: blue;">Why oil is often found in sedimentary basins? </span></u></b><u><b><span lang="EN-US"> </span></b></u></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: large;"> Sedimentary basins fill depression areas where there were deeply faulted, associated with plate boundaries (rifts, convergence compression or collision between two continental lithospheric plates).</span><br />
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: large;"><span style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%;"> The sedimentary strata form excellent reservoirs (pore spaces) and sealing rocks which when combined can form traps for hydrocarbons. </span>These traps are connected with deep sources, related to very deep faults also, having interactions with the upper mantle during the evolution and reactivation of the basin.</span><br />
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: large;"> Oil also occurs commercially in basement rocks, although the accumulations are more rare, it because due ignorance of the geology of this kind of terrane, and there is little effort to exploratory drilling and surveys in this context. </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: large;"><span style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%;"><span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">The</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">success</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">of the</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">discoveries</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">of the</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">oil and natural gas accumulations</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">in sedimentary basins</span> is <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">due to</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">the</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">remarkable</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">development</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">of</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">seismic</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">reflection</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">methods</span><span class="" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">, which</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">allow</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">better</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">identification of structures</span> (traps) <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">and</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">prediction</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">of reservoirs and anomalies</span><span title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">.</span></span></span><br />
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: large;"><span style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%;"> Hydrocarbons (oil, gas) migrating through faults from deep to the host sedimentary rocks are mainly in the reservoirs (</span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: large;"><span style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%;">rock</span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: large;"><span style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%;"> porosity), however it is fairly common interaction between </span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: large;"><span style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%;">allocthonous </span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: large;"><span style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%;">hydrocarbon and fine interstratified argillaceous rocks such as shales and/or alternating thin shales and <a href="http://unconventionalgeology.blogspot.com.br/2011/12/origin-of-carbonate-rocks.html">carbonate rocks</a>, leading to erroneous interpretation that these lithotypes are the so-called "source rocks" of oil (</span></span><span style="font-size: large;"><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%;">sic</span></i></b></span><span lang="EN-US" style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%; font-size: large;">)</span><span style="font-size: large;"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="background-attachment: scroll; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-position: 0% 0%;">.</span></b></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: x-large;"><b><u><span lang="EN-US">Examples of oil trends in areas of </span></u></b><b><u><span lang="EN-US">compressional regimes</span></u></b></span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif; font-size: small;"><b><span class="long_text" id="result_box" lang="en"><span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">Oilfields</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">in</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">the Middle East.</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">The</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">Arabian</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">Plate</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">has</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">relatively small size</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">and suffered</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">several</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">tectonic events </span><span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">and</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">recurrences - </span></span></b></span></span><b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"><span class="hps" style="background-color: whitesmoke; color: #333333; font-size: 16px;">These are the main</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: whitesmoke; color: #333333; font-size: 16px;"> </span><span class="hps" style="background-color: whitesmoke; color: #333333; font-size: 16px;">reasons why</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: whitesmoke; color: #333333; font-size: 16px;"> </span><span class="hps" style="background-color: whitesmoke; color: #333333; font-size: 16px;">the region is</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: whitesmoke; color: #333333; font-size: 16px;"> </span><span class="hps" style="background-color: whitesmoke; color: #333333; font-size: 16px;">plenty of oil</span></span></b><span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif; font-size: small;"><b><span class="long_text" lang="en"><span class="" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">.</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">There,</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">oil fields</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">are related</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">to</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">deep structures</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">in which</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">the</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">hydrocarbons</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">migrate</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">to</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">excellent</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">reservoirs</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">in</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">sedimentary basins, from </span><span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">Precambrian</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">to the</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">Cenozoi</span></span><span class="long_text" id="result_box" lang="en"><span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">c time, due reactivation of old deep structures</span></span></b></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"><b>Tectonic sketch of Italy and distribution of oil and gas occurrences. This is a remarkable example to show that hydrocarbons (oil and natural gas) merely follow the deep structures and fit perfectly to the major deep thrust faults present in the structural framework of the Apennines chain, the Bradanic trench and Calabrian Arc which permit migration of hydrocarbons from mantle below to shallower reservoirs above in sedimentary basins, during reactivation of those deep structures.</b></span><br />
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<span style="font-size: x-large;"><b><u><span style="line-height: 115%;">Conceptual models of extensional regimes which show interaction between mantle and oil trends that follow megastructures</span></u></b></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif; font-size: small;"><span class="long_text" id="result_box" lang="en"><span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">Model</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">of </span></span><span class="long_text" id="result_box" lang="en"><span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">ocean</span> </span><span class="long_text" id="result_box" lang="en"><span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">ope</span>ning <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">and</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">extensional</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">basin formation</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">of</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">divergent</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">margins</span><span class="" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">.</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">Reactivation</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">of old rift</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">structures</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">that formed</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">the</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">sedimentary basin</span>s <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">will</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">rise</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">hydrocarbon</span> from Earth's <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">mantle</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">to</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">the crust</span><span class="" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">, where</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">rocks</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">of sedimentary basins</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">form</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">the best</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">reservoirs</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">and</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">sealing</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">systems</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">in</span> </span><span class="long_text" id="result_box" lang="en"><span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">favorable</span> </span><span class="long_text" id="result_box" lang="en"><span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">structural situation</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">for</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">the hydrocarbons accumulations</span></span></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times" , serif; font-size: 18pt;"> </span><b><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif; font-size: small;"><span class="long_text" id="result_box" lang="en"><span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">Model</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">for the</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">Viking</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">Graben</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">in</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">the North Sea</span><span class="" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">.</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">Large</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">hydrocarbon accumulations</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">of this</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">area</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">clearly follow</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">the </span></span></span></b><b><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif; font-size: small;"><span class="long_text" id="result_box" lang="en"><span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">extensional</span> </span></span></b><b><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif; font-size: small;"><span class="long_text" id="result_box" lang="en"> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">trend</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">of the</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">rift</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">where</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">there is interaction with</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">deep</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">mantle</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">through deep faults </span><span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">that</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">allow</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">the rise</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">of</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">primordial oil</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">to</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">the</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">sedimentary basins and</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">their</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">consequent</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">accumulation</span></span></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-size: x-large;"><b style="color: blue;"><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;">“Geology is the prisoner of several dogmas that have had widespread influence on the development of scientific thought.”</span></i></b></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: x-large;"> —<b> William R. Corliss, 1975</b></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: x-large;"><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="color: blue;">“It is a singular and notable fact that, while most other branches of science have emancipated themselves from the trammels of metaphysical reasoning, the science of geology still remains imprisoned in ‘a priori’ theories.”</span> </span></i></b></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: x-large;">— </span><span style="font-size: x-large;"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;">Sir Henry H. Howorth, 1895</span></b></span></div>
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Geologisthttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03044199967329570135noreply@blogger.com33tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-32677820.post-19872150989876649172011-01-23T22:22:00.005-02:002011-10-24T23:37:04.001-02:00<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><div style="color: blue; text-align: justify;"><br />
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Poster publicado na American Geophysical Union AGU, August 2010, Meeting of the Americas, Foz do Iguassu, Brazil<br />
<div style="color: red;"><b><span style="font-size: large;"><i>Hydrocarbons And Their Relationship To The Origin Of Life In The Earth And Beyond </i></span></b></div></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large; font-weight: bold;">Vasconcelos, C. S and Szatmari, P.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><a href="https://dco.gl.ciw.edu/hydrocarbons%20and%20their%20relatioship%20origin%20life%20earth%20and%20beyond"></a></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><i><span style="font-weight: bold;">Abstract:</span></i></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;"><i>Life as we know it is based primarily on carbon. Carbon is the fourth element in the order of cosmic abundances, after hydrogen, helium and oxygen. Many astrobiologists try to evaluate the possibility of life on other planets, based on hypotheses about the conditions on the surface, such as the presence of liquid water, favorable temperatures and the composition of atmospheric gases, among other factors, even including life in extreme environments. However, there is the possibility that life in the planetary bodies could develop first underground, at depths of several kilometers below the surface, within the pores of the rocks. There the presence of abiogenic hydrocarbons, mainly primordial methane, oxygen compounds associated with iron oxide minerals, and even water, all at appropriate temperatures, could provide ideal conditions for the emergence of life. The conquest of the planet's surface by life would become possible only at a later stage when prokaryotic bacteria (Archaea) arise and move away from the declining hydrocarbon resources, adapt to surface conditions and develop internally catalyzed complex photosynthetic reactions permitting autotrophy. The detection of a deep biosphere in other planets is not simple and probably beyond the capabilities of our technology of telescopes and space probes. On the other hand, it would be relatively less complex to identify life on planets where photosynthesis does occur and has become exuberant. </i></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: x-large; font-weight: bold;">Resumo</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;">A vida tal como a conhecemos é baseada principalmente em carbono. O carbono é o quarto elemento da ordem de abundância cósmica, depois de hélio, hidrogênio e oxigênio. Muitos astrobiólogos tentam avaliar a possibilidade de vida em outros planetas com base em hipóteses sobre as condições na superfície, como a presença de água líquida, temperatura favorável e da composição dos gases atmosféricos, entre outros fatores, incluindo até mesmo a vida em ambientes extremos. No entanto, existe a possibilidade de que a vida nos corpos planetários poderia desenvolver primeiro no interior dos mesmos, em profundidades de vários quilômetros abaixo da superfície, dentro dos poros das rochas. A presença de hidrocarbonetos abióticos, principalmente o metano primordial, compostos de oxigênio associados com minerais de óxido de ferro e, até mesmo água, em temperaturas adequadas, poderia proporcionar condições ideais para o surgimento da vida. A conquista da superfície do planeta pela vida seria possível apenas numa fase posterior, quando as bactérias procarióticas (Archea) surgem e distanciam-se dos recursos de hidrocarbonetos em declínio, adaptando-se às condições de superfície e desenvolvendo internamente complexas reações catalisadoras permitindo tornarem seres autótrofos, através da fotossíntese. A detecção de uma biosfera profunda em outros planetas não é simples e, provavelmente, além da capacidade da nossa tecnologia de telescópios e sondas espaciais. Por outro lado, seria relativamente menos complexo identificar vida em planetas onde a fotossíntese ocorreu e tornou-se exuberante.</span><br />
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<span style="font-size: large;"><b><span style="color: red; font-size: small;">(<i>Clique nas figuras par</i><i>a</i> <i>a</i><i>mplia</i><i>r</i>) <i>(Click pictures to enlarge, text in english)</i></span></b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh7VInUrpqym8gMbgSLRU2QJa8q0vHhS3_GFCx7O9TL9vt6GkVCJWUOVI5UDh7LBreig22vydMFyOOqKSxDzio-duPtJUjkeR4uYOiKeI_nojaa28nB0XpDhkAZ38xkt3Y5CsHn/s1600/ScreenShot127.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img alt="" border="0" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5565545600606693586" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh7VInUrpqym8gMbgSLRU2QJa8q0vHhS3_GFCx7O9TL9vt6GkVCJWUOVI5UDh7LBreig22vydMFyOOqKSxDzio-duPtJUjkeR4uYOiKeI_nojaa28nB0XpDhkAZ38xkt3Y5CsHn/s400/ScreenShot127.jpg" style="height: 253px; width: 400px;" /></a></div></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;">A figura acima mostra que o carbono é o quarto elemento em ordem de abundância cósmica. Materiais primordiais do sistema Hidrogênio-Carbono são complexados em compostos policíclicos aromáticos <b>PAH </b> (<i>Polycyclic Aromatic Hydroarbons</i>) nas nebulosas e nos processos de acreção planetária juntamente com outros voláteis.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiLK-5ZYG9nIWnRBHUkEI1HAqxqEyDuHCVPPhpS1AhZ3IlnV_8rj_CxN8tCTsGOlTkWwymbcF7mHiigVYjyCY5L7h0WaMFbDv2YLBf3SpS1wRznieuILfWvlJ_e4JKVRNVZqWOw/s1600/ScreenShot128.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img alt="" border="0" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5565545907008232242" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiLK-5ZYG9nIWnRBHUkEI1HAqxqEyDuHCVPPhpS1AhZ3IlnV_8rj_CxN8tCTsGOlTkWwymbcF7mHiigVYjyCY5L7h0WaMFbDv2YLBf3SpS1wRznieuILfWvlJ_e4JKVRNVZqWOw/s400/ScreenShot128.jpg" style="height: 200px; width: 400px;" /></a></div></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;">A figura mostra relações dos hidrocarbonetos aromáticos com a química pré-biótica, ressaltando que as porfirinas de níquel e vanádio podem estar relacionadas com moléculas catalisadoras de bactérias primitivas que consomem hidrocarbonetos e morrem em meio a esses últimos. As moléculas de asfaltenos são extremamente complexas e não possuem nenhuma relação com a vida. Sua formação sugere ser primordial através dos compostos <b>PAH</b>.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEip9RKRx4aFtoBDQinC3eq2gQj43JVNCTK9DoMnjSNP3sU1kcyrj7McA5_aU_mwiF6QSN3uCQXofHYg3ExoUnb8sKYVkfI9BTsDODMOUCX0ln-F24XGHgcjTVzqpgiDW5vwZiAR/s1600/ScreenShot129.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img alt="" border="0" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5565546197412397586" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEip9RKRx4aFtoBDQinC3eq2gQj43JVNCTK9DoMnjSNP3sU1kcyrj7McA5_aU_mwiF6QSN3uCQXofHYg3ExoUnb8sKYVkfI9BTsDODMOUCX0ln-F24XGHgcjTVzqpgiDW5vwZiAR/s400/ScreenShot129.jpg" style="height: 209px; width: 400px;" /></a></div></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;">As figuras demonstram que os hidrocarbonetos são compostos primordiais, abióticos, com grande estabilidade termodinâmica. As teorias e proposições de Thomas Gold para a origem dos hidrocarbonetos (The Deep-Earth Gas Theory) são adequadas e possuem base científica, como se observa no gráfico de estabilidade termodinâmica para os hidrocarbonetos, de Chekaliuk, 1976. Também nos estudos do Massachussets Institute of Technology, <b>MIT, </b>que mostram que o carbono é extremamente abundante no manto da Terra em comparação com os níveis mais superficiais.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhXSlzREJHoYxqDxk6pPyeMsh-AjC5WxCsINBlpyLzerL1NO8qvGCR0IL0jmgNQjgT30_TXUyGAuW2hBlcn03r4qTlkD8MPb0KErXct2tK-sBhnGhrAvlWn2mcdEo0osc3oje5X/s1600/ScreenShot130.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img alt="" border="0" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5565546534068449762" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhXSlzREJHoYxqDxk6pPyeMsh-AjC5WxCsINBlpyLzerL1NO8qvGCR0IL0jmgNQjgT30_TXUyGAuW2hBlcn03r4qTlkD8MPb0KErXct2tK-sBhnGhrAvlWn2mcdEo0osc3oje5X/s400/ScreenShot130.jpg" style="height: 209px; width: 400px;" /></a></div></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;">Os diagramas mostram que os hidrocarbonetos como o petróleo e gás natural migram de grandes profundidades do interior da Terra (manto) para níveis de baixa pressão e temperatura tal como nas bacias sedimentares, conduzidos por gases como Hélio e Nitrogênio, podendo haver acumulação em reservatórios. Nesse contexto, bactérias primitivas alimentam-se desses hidrocarbonetos primordiais e deixam seus traços, como exemplo, hopanóides. Essa contaminação causada pelos microrganismos conduz um antigo paradoxo para a origem do petróleo, caso não se compreenda que os hidrocarbonetos são primordiais e abióticos. Os trabalhos de Kutcherov (2009) em experimentos de alta pressão e temperatura comprovam a formação de hidrocarbonetos gasosos a partir de materiais inorgânicos assim como os trabalhos de J.F.Kenney e colaboradores.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjcQVPnv-qUk4nbD3OweoBVv9BtclzuTixN01mUo8ALOKuQ_pEjZ7hcDNjnQ6L4BD_oCkQn6bJOb8ddjyuAPi_eX5_Hj_mblLEpMlJ_JUGm06VHj4ySAImp3CjjZWJEby4T6OZ1/s1600/ScreenShot131.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img alt="" border="0" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5565546879693782466" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjcQVPnv-qUk4nbD3OweoBVv9BtclzuTixN01mUo8ALOKuQ_pEjZ7hcDNjnQ6L4BD_oCkQn6bJOb8ddjyuAPi_eX5_Hj_mblLEpMlJ_JUGm06VHj4ySAImp3CjjZWJEby4T6OZ1/s400/ScreenShot131.jpg" style="height: 212px; width: 400px;" /></a></div></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;">Na figura a árvore filogenética da vida. Notar que o domínio das archeas está na base, próximo ao ancestral comum. Ver as moléculas de hopanóides, muito comuns no petróleo, que são fracamente oxigenadas e estão relacionadas com partes de paredes celulares de bactérias que vivem e morrem em meio ao petróleo. A clorofila é uma molécula de porfirina com núcleo de magnésio. No petróleo inexistem porfirinas de magnésio, apenas de níquel e vanádio.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhC0pMocfcDYj0kQl-eftUGifdBxu5oEcgU7nAFbiG4Fn2vM-rG9xNwNMSAbfEoPd4k1dva4Uh4tRhC6sW2vvpIh2Ra0zyQnrzZ9y5HxNOTe5-qNBiZEdAFWpWwPZiWLLcdV1Jo/s1600/ScreenShot132.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img alt="" border="0" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5565547180287298354" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhC0pMocfcDYj0kQl-eftUGifdBxu5oEcgU7nAFbiG4Fn2vM-rG9xNwNMSAbfEoPd4k1dva4Uh4tRhC6sW2vvpIh2Ra0zyQnrzZ9y5HxNOTe5-qNBiZEdAFWpWwPZiWLLcdV1Jo/s400/ScreenShot132.jpg" style="height: 185px; width: 400px;" /></a></div></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large;">A figura mostra a distribuição global de clorofila no planeta Terra, a partir de dados de satélites NASA. Notar a abundância nas regiões polares, onde há mais oxigênio dissolvido na água. Torna-se óbvio que um planeta com vida baseada em clorofila seria de fácil identificação por refletir a cor verde no espectro. A fotossíntese é um processo complexo e posterior à biosfera que existe no interior da Terra. O estudo dessa biosfera profunda e quente deve ser o objetivo principal dos astrobiólogos caso queiram entender melhor onde pode haver vida e como ela pode se originar.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br />
</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><i>Also available in Deep Carbon Observatory - Carnegie Institution, Washington, USA.</i></div></div>Geologisthttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03044199967329570135noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-32677820.post-24941404884511235712011-01-07T10:47:00.018-02:002012-02-04T17:09:12.079-02:00Thomas Gold – Professional Papers<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><div style="text-align: justify;"><div style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: blue; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-weight: bold; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: x-large;">Thomas Gold</span></span> </div><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: x-large; font-weight: bold;"><span style="color: blue;"><br />
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<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiDw0urA_dDDw00YymtvatQcp_6Rl2tox9HjwXD5F8VQTcQu_-0tJnIGNcrYGLeyX2cO5D-VRnhuKT8sDVqlTkH3lYKb1S9nEJeo0XytYD4kcugj94xqEUQMlf6VvPL-CW2ThGW/s1600/Thomas_Gold.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="400" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiDw0urA_dDDw00YymtvatQcp_6Rl2tox9HjwXD5F8VQTcQu_-0tJnIGNcrYGLeyX2cO5D-VRnhuKT8sDVqlTkH3lYKb1S9nEJeo0XytYD4kcugj94xqEUQMlf6VvPL-CW2ThGW/s400/Thomas_Gold.jpg" width="271" /></a></div><div style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-weight: bold;"><span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif;"><br />
</span></span></div><div style="text-align: center;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif; font-weight: bold;">Thomas Gold (1920 -2004)</span></div><span style="color: blue; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: x-large;"><b><br />
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</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">________________________________________</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> His book, <span style="font-weight: bold;">"The Deep Hot Bioshpere"</span> (Copernicus, An Imprint of Springer-Verlag, New York, ISBN 0-387-98546-8) is available in bookstores in the USA and United Kingdom. It can also be obtained on the Internet from Barnes & Noble or Amazon.com. It discusses most of the items listed below. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> The basic idea that a large amount of microbial life exists in the pore spaces of the rocks down to depths of between 6 and 10 kilometers arose in the following way: natural petroleum almost always contains elevated levels of the chemically inert gas helium and at the same time it contains molecules that are unquestionably of biological origin. How these two different substances meet up in oil has long been a puzzle. If there exists microbial life, down to all levels that can be reached by the drill, then the biological molecules can be explained. The association with helium can then be explained adequetely if the hydrocarbons have come up from much deeper levels and thereby swept up the diffusely distributed helium that exists in the rocks. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> The evidence that such a deep biosp</span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">h</span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">ere exists has now been strongly supported by microbial studies in deep bore holes.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> Drilling deep into the crystalline granite of Sweden between 1986 and 1993 revealed substantial amounts of natural gas and oil. 80 barrels of oil were pumped up from a depth between 5.2 km and 6.7 km. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> Russian petroleum geologists followed this operation closely. Dr. P.N. Kropotkin reported at a meeting in Moscow that the discovery of oil deep in the Baltic Shield may be considered a decisive factor in the hundred year old debate about the biogenic or abiogenic origin of oil. This discovery was made in deep wells that were drilled in the central part of the crystalline Baltic Shield, on the initiative of T. Gold. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> Drilling into crystalline bedrock is now underway in Russia on a large scale. More than 300 wells have been drilled to a depth of more than 5 km and are productive, as also is the giant White Tiger field offshore Vietnam, mostly producing also from basement rock. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">________________________________________</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> Outgassing processes of the Earth are discussed, and the relation they may have to:</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">• geophysics </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">• geochemistry </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">• sub-surface biology </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">• origin of petroleum </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">• earthquakes and volcanic eruptions </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">• deposits of certain metal ores </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">• chemical processing of the crust</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> Sub-surface life on Earth may give an indication that similar life exists on other planetary bodies, and suggests means of looking for that. The material is presented in the form of assorted papers from the following menu.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">• The most important information for estimating the value of a field: Recharging of oil and gas fields. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">• The origin of petroleum</span><br />
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</span></div><div style="color: red; text-align: justify;"><b style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: xx-large;">Natural Gas and Oil</b></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: large;"><b><span style="color: red;">The Origin of Methane (and oil) in the Crust of the Earth</span></b></span> <span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: large;">— This is a major paper, outlining the reasons why an origin from non-biological materials accounts better for the facts, than an origin from buried biomass (approximately 31 printed pages).</span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">• <b style="color: red;">Can There Be Two Different Processes Responsible for Commercial Oil? </b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">•<b><span style="color: red;"> Evidence for a primordial origin of hydrocarbons</span></b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">On the History of Science - Excerpts from a paper by P.N. Kropotkin</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">Depth Effects of Petroleum </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">• <b style="color: red;">Association of hydrocarbons with helium and with biological molecules</b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">Association of Petroleum with Helium and Biological Molecules </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">• <span style="color: red;">Causes of Earthquakes and Earthquake Prediction</span></span></b></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">Earthquakes, Gases, and Earthquake Prediction</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">Eye-witness Accounts of Several Major Earthquakes </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">• <b><span style="color: red;">Sub-surface life on Earth and possibly on other planetary bodies</span></b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">The Deep, Hot Biosphere — Reason for suspecting massive microbial life in the crust of the Earth.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">Life on other Planets — Sub-surface life on Earth suggests that similar life may exist on other planetary bodies. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">•<b><span style="color: red;"> The deposition of certain metal ores</span></b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">Metal Ores and Hydrocarbons </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: large;">• <b><span style="color: red;">T. Gold Vita</span></b></span> </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br />
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</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: red; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: x-large; font-weight: bold;">Natural Gas and Oil</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">Thomas Gold</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"><b>January 1997</b> </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> Natural gas and oil are widely considered to originate on Earth from the chemical evolution of biological debris. A view, widespread in earlier times and entertained by Mendeleev among others, was instead that these substances originated in materials laid down in the formation process of the Earth, and later percolated towards the surface. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> Similar hydrocarbons are widespread on many other planetary bodies, as well as on comets and generally in deep galactic space, clearly not related to biological materials there. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> Thermodynamic considerations show that in the high-pressure, high-temperature regime of the outer mantle of the Earth, hydrogen and carbon will readily form hydrocarbon molecules, and some of those will be stable during ascent into the outer crust. There is no reason now for invoking the unique origin of biology for the Earth's hydrocarbons, different from the origin of similar materials on the other planetary bodies. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> The many molecules of unquestionably biological origin in petroleum - hopanes, pristine, phytane, steranes, certain porphyrins - can all be produced by bacteria, and such microbial life at depth is indeed now seen to be widespread. The presence of these molecules can no longer be taken to be indicative of a biological origin of petroleum, but merely of the widespread presence of a microflora at depth. The presence of helium and of numerous trace metals, often in far higher concentrations in petroleum than in its present host rock, has then an explanation in the scavenging action of hydrocarbon fluids on their long way up. Many mineral deposits may be due to the formation and transportation of organo-metallic compounds in such streams, often interacting with microbial life in the outer crust. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> A 6.6 km deep well drilled in the granite of Sweden shows petroleum and gas, and bacteria that can be cultured, all in the complete absence of any sediments, and hence of any biological debris. Combustible gas in large sample containers has been brought to the surface from a depth of more than 6.5 km. It will readily burn, and it shows a composition which includes methane and heavier hydrocarbons up to C-7, as well as free hydrogen. The greatest concentrations of this gas are in and close to the various intrusions of volcanic rocks (dolerite), indicating that the gases have used the pathways from depth that the volcanic rock created or used in its ascent. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br />
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</span></div><div style="color: red; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: x-large; font-weight: bold;">The Origin of Methane (and Oil) in the Crust of the Earth </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br />
</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">Thomas Gold </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br />
</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">U.S.G.S. Professional Paper 1570, The Future of Energy Gases, 1993 </span></b></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"><br />
</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="color: blue; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: x-large; font-weight: bold;">Abstract </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"><br />
</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> The deposits of hydrocarbons in the crust of the Earth have long been regarded by many investigators as deriving from materials incorporated in the mantle at the time of the Earth's formation. Outgassing processes, active in all geological epochs, then transported the liquids and gases liberated there into porous rocks of the crust. The alternative viewpoint, that biological debris was the source material for all crustal hydrocarbons, gained widespread acceptance when molecules of clearly biological origin were found to be present in most commercial crude oils. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> Modern information re-directs attention to the theories of a non-biological, primeval origin. Among this information is the prominence of hydrocarbons—gases, liquids and solids—on many other bodies of the solar system, as well as in interstellar space. Advances in high-pressure thermodynamics have shown that the pressure-temperature regime of the Earth would allow hydrocarbon molecules to be formed and to survive between the surface and a depth of 100 to 300 km. Outgassing from such depth would bring up other gases present in trace amounts in the rocks, thus accounting for the well known association of hydrocarbons with helium. Recent discoveries of the widespread presence of bacterial life at depth point to this as the origin of the biological content of petroleum. The carbon budget of the crust requires an outgassing process to have been active throughout the geologic record, and information from planets and meteorites, as well as from mantle samples, would suggest that methane rather than CO2 could be the major souce of surface carbon. Isotopic fractionation of methane in its migration through rocks is indicated by numerous observations, providing an alternative to biological processes that have been held responsible for such fractionation. Information from deep boreholes in granitic and volcanic rock of Sweden has given support to the theory of the migration of gas and oil from depth, to the occurrence of isotopic fractionation in migration, to an association with helium, and to the presence of microbiology below 4 km depth.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br />
</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="color: blue; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: x-large; font-weight: bold;">Introduction </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br />
</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> The gas methane, CH4, the principal component of natural gas, does not contain sufficient evidence in itself from which to deduce its origin on the Earth. There is some evidence from its isotopic composition, but interpretations of that are not unique. Information, however, exists in the mode of occurrence of natural gas reservoirs, in the geographic and geological relationships, in associated chemicals, and, above all, in the frequent association with other hydrocarbons, specifically crude petroleum and bituminous coal. Although there are numerous occurrences of natural gas without the heavier hydrocarbons, the association is generally so clear that one cannot contemplate an origin for the natural gas deposits independent of those of petroleum. We shall therefore first consider the origin of the whole set of hydrocarbons, including natural gas, and then discuss aspects that are specific to methane. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br />
</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="color: blue; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: x-large; font-weight: bold;">Debate about the Origin of Petroleum </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br />
</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> It is remarkable that in spite of its widespread occurrence, its great economic importance, and the immense amount of fine research devoted to it, there perhaps still remain more uncertainties concerning the origin of petroleum than that of any other commonly occurring natural substance. (H.D.Hedberg, 1964) </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> Actually it cannot be too strongly emphasized that petroleum does not present the composition picture expected from modified biogenic products, and all the arguments from the constituents of ancient oils fit equally well, or better, with the conception of a primordial hydrocarbon mixture to which bio-products have been added. (Sir Robert Robinson, President, Royal Society, 1963) </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> The capital fact to note is that petroleum was born in the depths of the Earth, and it is only there that we must seek its origin. (D. Mendeleev, 1877) </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> The origin of petroleum has been a subject of many intense and heated debates, ever since this black fluid was first discovered to be present in large quantities in the pore spaces of many rocks. Is it something brought in from space when the Earth was formed? Or is it a fluid concentrated from huge amounts of vegetation and animal remains that may have been buried in the sediments over hundreds of millions of years? </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> Arguments have been advanced for each viewpoint, and although they conflict with each other, each line of argument sounds strangely convincing. In favor of the biogenic origin of petroleum, the following four observations have been advanced: </span><br />
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</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">(1) Petroleum contains groups of molecules which are clearly identified as the breakdown products of complex, but common, organic molecules that occur in plants, and that could not have been built up in a non-biological process. </span><br />
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</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">(2) Petroleum frequently shows the phenomenon of optical activity, i.e. a rotation of the plane of polarization when polarized light is passed through it. This implies that molecules which can have either a right-handed or a left-handed symmetry are not equally represented, but that one symmetry is preferred. This is normally a characteristic of biological materials and absent in fluids of non-biological origin. </span><br />
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</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">(3) Some petroleums show a clear preference for molecules with an odd number of carbon atoms over those with an even number. Such an odd-even effect can be understood as arising from the breakdown of a class of molecules that are common in biological substances, and may be difficult to account for in other ways. </span><br />
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</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">(4) Petroleum is mostly found in sedimentary deposits and only rarely in the primary rocks of the crust below; even among the sediment, it favors those that are geologically young. In many cases such sediment appears to be rich in carbonaceous materials that were interpreted as of biological origin, and as source material for the petroleum deposit. </span><br />
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</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> On the other side of the argument, in favor of an origin from deeply buried materials incorporated in the Earth when it formed, the following observations have been cited: </span><br />
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</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">(1) Petroleum and methane are found frequently in geographic patterns of long lines or arcs, which are related more to deep-seated large-scale structural features of the crust, than to the smaller scale patchwork of the sedimentary deposits. </span><br />
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</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">(2) Hydrocarbon-rich areas tend to be hydrocarbon-rich at many different levels, corresponding to quite different geological epochs, and extending down to the crystalline basement that underlies the sediment. An invasion of an area by hydrocarbon fluids from below could better account for this than the chance of successive deposition. </span><br />
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</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">(3) Some petroleums from deeper and hotter levels lack almost completely the biological evidence . Optical activity and the odd-even carbon number effect are sometimes totally absent, and it would be difficult to suppose that such a thorough destruction of the biological molecules had occurred as would be required to account for this, yet leaving the bulk substance quite similar to other crude oils. </span><br />
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</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">(4) Methane is found in many locations where a biogenic origin is improbable or where biological deposits seem inadequate: in great ocean rifts in the absence of any substantial sediments; in fissures in igneous and metamorphic rocks, even at great depth; in active volcanic regions, even where there is a minimum of sediments; and there are massive amounts of methane hydrates (methane-water ice combinations) in permafrost and ocean deposits, where it is doubtful that an adequate quantity and distribution of biological source material is present. </span><br />
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</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">(5) The hydrocarbon deposits of a large area often show common chemical or isotopic features, quite independent of the varied composition or the geological ages of the formations in which they are found. Such chemical signatures may be seen in the abundance ratios of some minor constituents such as traces of certain metals that are carried in petroleum; or a common tendency may be seen in the ratio of isotopes of some elements, or in the abundance ratio of some of the different molecules that make up petroleum. Thus a chemical analysis of a sample of petroleum could often allow the general area of its origin to be identified, even though quite different formations in that area may be producing petroleum. For example a crude oil from anywhere in the Middle East can be distinguished from an oil originating in any part of South America, or from the oils of West Africa; almost any of the oils from California can be distinguished from that of other regions by the carbon isotope ratio. </span><br />
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</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">(6) The regional association of hydrocarbons with the inert gas helium, and a higher level of natural helium seepage in petroleum-bearing regions, has no explanation in the theories of biological origin of peroleum. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-weight: bold;"><br />
<span style="color: blue; font-size: x-large;">Advocates of the Abiogenic Theory </span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br />
</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> Among the early advocates of a non-biological origin of petroleum was the great Russian chemist Mendeleev, the originator of the periodic table of the elements. His arguments, presented in a paper on the origin of petroleum (Mendeleev, 1877) are still valid today. He already knew of the large-scale patterns of hydrocarbon occurrence, but his information on the processes that shaped the Earth was not our present understanding, and made his explanations much more complex than would need to be the case now. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> Sokoloff (1889) discussed the "cosmic origin of bitumina" (carbonaceous substances from petroleum to pitch and tar), and he related these to the meteorites, knowing then already about their hydrocarbon content. He stressed that oil and tar occur in basement rocks, such as in the gneiss of Sweden. He could find no relationship to the fossil content of rocks, and he stressed that porosity was the sole circumstance which relates to the accumulation of bituminous substances. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">Vernadsky (1933) gave reasons why he considered that with increased pressure and deceased oxygen availability with depth, hydrocarbons would be stable and largely replace carbon dioxide as the chief carbon-bearing fluid. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> Kudryavtsev (1959) the most prominent and strongest advocate of the abiogenic theory in modern times, argued that no petroleum resembling the chemical composition of natural crudes has ever been made from genuine plant material in the laboratory, and in conditions resembling those in nature. He gave many examples of of substantial and sometimes commercial quantities of petroleum being found in crystalline or metamorphic basements, or in sediments directly overlying those. He cited cases in Kansas, California, Western Venezuela and Morocco. He pointed out that oil pools in sedimentary strata are often related to fractures in the basement directly below. The Lost Soldier Field in Wyoming has oil pools, he stated, at every horizon of the geological section, from the Cambrian sandstone overlying the basement to the upper Cretaceous deposits. A flow of oil was also obtained from the basement itself. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> Hydrocarbon gases, he noted, are not rare in igneous and metamorphic rocks of the Canadian Shield. Petroleum in Precambrian gneiss is encountered in wells on the eastern shore of Lake Baikal. He stressed that petroleum is present, in large or small quantity, but in all horizons below any petroleum accumulation, apparently totally independent of the varied conditions of formation of these horizons. This statement has since become known as "Kudryavtsev's Rule" and many examples of it have been noted in different parts of the world. Commercial accumulations are simply found where permeable zones are overlaid by impermeable ones, he concluded. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> Kudryavtsev introduced a number of other relevant considerations into the argument. Columns of flames have been seen during the eruptions of some volcanoes, sometimes reaching 500 meters in height, such as during the eruption of Merapi in Sumatra in 1932. (We since know of several other instances.) The eruptions of mud-volcanoes have liberated such quantities of methane, that even the most prolific gasfield underneath should have been exhausted long ago. Also the quantities of mud deposited in some cases would have required eruptions of much more gas than is known in any gasfield anywhere. The water coming up in some instances carries such substances as iodine, bromine and boron that could not have been derived from local sediments, and that exceed the concentrations in seawater one hundred fold. Mud volcanoes are often associated with lava volcanoes, and the typical relationship is that where they are close, the mud volcanoes emit incombustible gases, while the ones further away emit methane. He knew of the occurrence of oil in basement rocks of the Kola Peninsula, and of the surface seeps of oil in the Siljan Ring formation of Central Sweden (which we shall discuss later). He noted that the enormous quantities of hydrocarbons in the Athabasca tar sands in Canada would have required vast amounts of source rocks for their generation in the conventional discussion, when in fact no source rocks have been found. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> Beskrovny and Tikhomirov (1968) noted, as did Anders, Hayatsu and Studier (1973), that of the many possible isomers of petroleum molecules, the particular sub-set found in natural petroleum is also the one singled out in artificial oil production from hydrogen and carbon rather than from biological substances. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> Porfir'ev (1974) argued that so-called source rocks have no identification that proves their hydrocarbons to be primarily biogenic. He also discounted the hypothesis, often advanced, that the transport and deposition of oil from supposed source rocks to the final reservoir was accomplished by solution in gas: the quantities of gas that would be required would exceed by orders of magnitude the quantities that could be derived from the supposed source materials. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> Levin (1958) concerned himself with the formation process of the Earth, claiming that the class of meteorites called carbonaceous chondrites, a low-temperature condensate that was probably responsible for bringing in solids that contained water, could have brought to the forming Earth several times larger quantities of carbonaceous materials than all the ocean water. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> Kravtsov (1975) presented much observational material. He showed that the natural seepage of methane in many areas was far more than could be supplied by any kind of gasfield known. If the volcanic gases of the Kurile Islands, for example, are typical of the gases emitted over the time-span of the volcanic activity there, the amount of methane emitted would far exceed the conventional estimate of the present-day total world reserves. He also gave many examples of "Kudryavtsev's Rule." </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> Kropotkin and Valyaev (1976, 1984) and Kropotkin (1985) developed many aspects of the theory of deep-seated, inorganic origin of hydrocarbons. They concluded that petroleum deposits were formed where pressure conditions permitted the condensation of heavier hydrocarbons, transferred from great depth by rapidly rising streams of compressed gases. In volcanic regions, they noted, decomposition of hydrocarbons would be favored, resulting in the formation of carbon dioxide and water, while in "cool" regions hydrocarbons would be preserved, and could accumulate in alluvial cover and highly fractured beds, depending on the presence of adequate reservoirs and covers. According to these authors "vertical migration of hydrocarbons from levels far below formations rich in biogenic organic matter, which have been considered the source material for the oil, can be demonstrated in a majority of deposits." Kropotkin also presented numerous examples where Kudryavtsev's Rule is satisfied in a striking way. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> There were several voices also outside Russia (or the Soviet Union), who argued for a non-biogenic origin. Most notable among them was Sir Robert Robinson (1963, 1966) who, like Mendeleev, can be considered among the most distinguished chemists of his day. He studied the chemical make-up of natural petroleums in great detail, and concluded that they were mostly far too hydrogen-rich to be a likely product of the decay of plant debris. Olefins, the unsaturated hydrocarbons, would have been expected to predominate by far in any material that was derived in that way. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> Sylvester-Bradley (1964, 1972) discussed that the meteorites have hydrocarbons, and that hydrocarbons on the Earth derived in major part from such material. He proposed that hydrocarbons streaming up through the crust from great depth would have provided energy sources for simple forms of life. He knew about the biological materials in petroleum, but, like Robert Robinson, he thought that they were due to contaminating additions from microbiology in such locations. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> Before discussing further the possible origins of hydrocarbons on the Earth, it is necessary to discuss the present state of knowledge of the formation process of the Earth and the planetary system, and the materials that contributed to the formation.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br />
</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="color: blue; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: x-large; font-weight: bold;">The Formation Process of the Earth </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br />
</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> The Earth is a body with a most complex history. None of its sister planets display signs of the processes that appear to have been the major ones to shape this planet of ours. On all the other solid bodies of the Solar System the effects of impact cratering can be seen very clearly. Craters spanning a range of size from a few kilometers to several thousand can be clearly recognized. Impacts of solid objects upon all the planetary bodies in the process of their formation must have been a common occurrence. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> Strangely, on our Earth similar cratering events can only be seen, if at all, in a very subdued form. We see arcs of circles appearing in the midst of a topography shaped by other effects. It seems reasonable to interpret such circular features as the remains of impacts, now deeply buried but affecting the outer crust at a later stage in some way that makes the buried impacts recognizable again. One has to suppose that other events occurred here that obscured most of the evidence of this early bombardment. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> Nevertheless, it is now quite clear that the Earth, like the other solid planetary bodies, also formed by the accretion of solid objects, probably largely in the form of small grains, but interspersed with occasional major pieces. It appears that then a partial melting took place, causing materials of lower density to make their way to the surface, while presumably melts of high density sank down towards the center. The heat for this melting was the result of radioactivity contained in the material, as well as just the heat resulting from compression. Once partial melting occurred, two other sources of heat came into play: firstly the gravitational energy that is released as materials can move and sort themselves out according to density. Secondly there is the chemical energy that results from all the chemical reactions that can then take place, either between different liquids or between liquids and solids. The original diverse materials accreted as cold objects would certainly not have been chemically equilibrated with each other, but would be left in an uneven distribution by the chances of the impact events. After gaining mobility by melting, many chemical reactions would take place that would, on average, release energy and thus provide more heat, as well as giving rise to volatile substances. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> Both these last two sources of energy have the interesting property that they make the heating unstable: where more heating has occurred and more melt produced, more of these actions can take place and therefore still more heat will be produced there. One may well speculate that the very uneven distribution of internal heat sources which we recognize at the surface, derives from such an instability. The circumpacific "belt of fire" is the most striking example, but there are also many other lanes characterized by high heat flow and volcanic activity. They are also characterized by the outflow of fluids, gases and liquids, that are thought to have a deep origin. Deposits of hydrocarbons frequently show a clear association with such patterns. (An example is shown in Figure 3.) </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> If the major volume of the Earth has never been molten, the mantle of the Earth underneath the crust must still contain the diversity of chemistry, the chemical energy sources and the sources of gases and liquids that would be the legacy of an accretion process from diverse and initially cold solids. Major impacts would have thrown up ring patterns of mountains, which, as on the Moon, would convert vertical patterns of chemical inhomogeneity into regional patterns. Many arcuate patterns on the Earth of present surface topography and of chemical features or of heat flow may be a consequence of this. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-weight: bold;"><br />
<span style="color: blue; font-size: x-large;">The Theory of the Biological Origin of Hydrocarbons on Earth </span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br />
</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> Oil, hydrocarbon gases and coal on the Earth were thought to have derived entirely from biological debris for the following reasons: One reason was the belief in earlier times that hydrocarbons were specifically organic substances: hence the name "organic carbon" for all forms of unoxidized carbon. The knowledge that hydrocarbons are abundant in the universe, and on many of the other planetary bodies of our solar system, was not available at that time. Now we know that carbon, the fourth most abundant element in the Universe after hydrogen, helium and oxygen, is almost certainly also the fourth most abundant in the planetary system; there it is predominantly in the form of hydrocarbons. The major planets Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune, have large amounts of methane and other hydrocarbon gases in their atmospheres. Titan, a large satellite of Saturn, has methane and ethane in its atmosphere, and these gases form clouds and behave much like water does in the atmosphere of the Earth. Triton, a large satellite of Neptune, appears to have hydrocarbons mixed with water ices on its surface, as does the outermost planet known at this time, Pluto. A large fraction of all the asteroids show a surface reflectance closely resembling that of tar, and the comets have hydrocarbons among the gases they emit. The surface of the core of Comet Halley, recently observed by spacecraft, is most reasonably interpreted as one of tar. Complex, polycyclic hydrocarbon molecules, similar to those in natural petroleum have been observed to be a prominent component of interplanetary dust grains that currently enter the Earth's upper atmosphere (Clemett and others, 1993). </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> Hydrocarbons in our planetary system are certainly very abundant, and in all the extraterrestrial examples mentioned almost certainly not related to biology. Also hydrocarbons are prominent among the gases identified in the molecular clouds of the galaxy, and it is from such clouds that the solar system formed initially. The presence and great abundance of hydrocarbons is universal, and no special mechanism for their generation on the Earth needs to be invoked, unless one knew with certainty that they could not have survived the formation process here, although they did so on many of the other planetary bodies. (No evidence of hydrocarbons has yet been seen on Mars, Moon, Venus and Mercury. The atmosphere of Venus is too hot to have maintained gaseous or liquid hydrocarbons; the other three bodies lack an adequate protective atmosphere to have maintained them on their surfaces.) </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> In earlier times there was the belief that the Earth had formed as a hot, molten body. In that case no hydrocarbons or hydrogen would have survived against oxidation, nor would any of these substances have been maintained in the interior after solidification. With that belief, there seemed no other possibility of accounting for the hydrocarbons embedded in the crust than by the outgassing of carbon in the form of CO2, produced by materials that could have survived in a hot Earth, and subsequent photosynthesis by plants that converted this CO2 into unoxidized carbon compounds. This consideration is irrelevant now that we know that a cold formation process assembled the Earth and that hydrocarbons could have been maintained, and could be here for the same reasons as they are on the other planetary bodies. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> The common existence of molecules of clearly biological origin in most petroleum and bituminous coal is no longer an argument for a biological origin of hydrocarbons, now that we know of the wide reach of microbiology in the crust (Jannasch, 1983; Yayanos, 1986; Gold, 1992). Before this had been identified, the possibility of widespread biological contamination at depth had not been considered. Now, especially after the discovery of the volcanic vents on the ocean floors and the profuse chemosynthetic life that exists there, the outlook is different. It is now seen as not only possible, but very likely, that microbiology is common in the crust down to depths of between 5 and 10 kilometers, a level below which the temperature will reach values too high for any microbial life we know, thought to be between 110 and 150 °C. This deep microbial life uses as its energy source the various chemical imbalances that the outgassing process creates as gases and liquids stream up through rocks with which they have never been chemically equilibrated. Knowing now of the occurrences of such deep microbial life, it seems likely that no location that could support such life has been kept sterile from it for the long periods of geologic time. Hydrocarbons, together with oxygen donors such as sulfates or metal (principally iron) oxides, substances that are common in the rocks or water, would provide a usable energy source for microorganisms. Hydrocarbon deposits would therefore acquire biological debris in the course of time. The molecules which are commonly regarded as proof of the biological origin of petroleum and of bituminous coal have all been found to be also produced by subsurface bacteria; indeed some of them can only be produced by bacteria (Ourisson and others, 1984). Pristane, phytane, steranes, hopanes are unquestionably of biological origin, but do not certify the biological origin of either petroleum, coal, kerogen or whatever other deposits in which they are seen. With the photosynthetic theory of their origin, they seemed to certify that these materials were all once at the surface. But this is no longer a valid inference. Many other conclusions in geology were based on this, and should also be reconsidered now. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-weight: bold;"><br />
<span style="color: blue; font-size: x-large;">Origin of the Carbon on the Earth </span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br />
</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> The surface and surface sediment on the Earth contain approximately one hundred times as much carbon as would have been derived from the grinding up of the basement rocks that contributed to the sediment. The surface is enormously enriched in carbon, and this needs an explanation. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> The carbon we have on the surface or in the sediment of the Earth is estimated to be 4/5 in the form of carbonate rocks, and 1/5 in unoxidized form, frequently referred to as "organic." (The word "organic" given then to all unoxidized carbon, is of course now a misleading misnomer.) The quantities are large: if expressed as the mass of the element carbon per square centimeter of total Earth surface area, the estimate is about 20 kilograms. (I will be referring to this quantity again later.) </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> During formation of the Earth by the accumulation of cold solids, very little gaseous material was incorporated. The knowledge of this comes from the extremely low level of the non-radiogenic noble gases in the atmosphere of the Earth. Among those, only helium could have escaped into space, and only xenon could have been significantly removed by absorption into rocks. Neon, argon, krypton would have been maintained as an atmospheric component. The noble gas proportions in the Sun and in space are known. Any acquisition of such a mix of gases in the formation process would not have been able to selectively exclude noble gases that have no significant chemical interactions. One is forced to conclude that the acquisition of gases, or substances that would be gaseous at the pressures and temperatures that ruled in the region of formation of the Earth, was limited to the small value implied by the low noble gas values. The carbon supply the Earth received initially could not have been in the form of hydrocarbon gases, high volatility hydrocarbon liquids, or CO or CO2. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> Could meteoritic infall of carbon at later times be held responsible for the surface carbon excess? Such a massive infall would have left much other evidence in the geologic record, and this is absent. The only alternative is that carbon came up from the interior as a liquid or gas, just as is also true for the water of the oceans (approximately 300 kg/cm2) the nitrogen of the atmosphere (1 kg/cm2 approximately) and the (largely radiogenic) argon of the atmosphere. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> Perhaps one might consider the possibility that the Earth once had a massive atmosphere of carbon dioxide that evolved early on, from materials that could have survived the formation process, and that these then became converted in into the carbon deposits we now have; but that also does not seem an acceptable explanation, for in that case we should see incomparably more very early carbonate rocks than the amounts laid down later. This is not what the geologic record shows. What it does show is a reasonably continuous process of laying down carbonate rocks; no epoch having enormously more per unit time, nor enormously less. If outgassing from depth is responsible, then one has to discuss what the source material in the Earth might have been, what liquids or gases might have come from them, and what their fate would have been as they made their way up through the crust. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> The meteorites represent some samples of leftover material from the formation of the planets. While they may not be representative of the quantities of the different types that made up the Earth, they appear to represent at least samples of all the major components. Only one type, the carbonaceous chondrites, contain significant amounts of carbon, and they contain it mainly in unoxidized form, a substantial fraction in the form of solid, heavy hydrocarbons. This material, when heated under pressure as it would be in the interior of the Earth, would indeed release hydrocarbon fluids, leaving behind deposits of solid carbon. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> The quantitative information on carbonaceous chondrites is difficult to evaluate. They are much more friable than most other meteorites, and therefore survive the fall through the atmosphere less often than the others. Carbonaceous chondrites also are destroyed by erosion on the ground much more rapidly. The result must be that far fewer than the original proportion are ever discovered. They may well represent even now the largest quantity of meteoritic material still available for collection by the Earth; the infall of interplanetary dust to which I have referred, contains similar carbonaceous material. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> By contrast, carbonates, which would be a source material for CO2, exist in meteoritic materials only in very small concentrations, so that an origin of the carbon from an initial CO2 source seems unlikely. If the carbonaceous chondrite material is the principal source of the surface carbon we have, then the initial material that could be mobilized in the Earth at elevated temperatures and pressure would be a mix of carbon and hydrogen. What would be the fate of such a mix? Would it all be oxidized with oxygen from the rocks, as some chemical equilibrium calculations have suggested? Evidently not, for we have clear evidence that unoxidized carbon exists at depths between 150 km and 300 km in the diamonds. We know they come from there, because it is only in this depth range that the pressures would be adequate for their formation. Diamonds are known to have high-pressure inclusions that contain CH4 and heavier hydrocarbons, as well as CO2 and nitrogen (Melton and Giardini, 1974). The presence of at least centimeter-sized pieces of very pure carbon implies that carbon-bearing fluids exist there, and that they must be able to move through pore-spaces at that depth, so that a dissociation process may deposit selectively the pure carbon; a process akin to mineralization processes as we know them at shallower levels. The fluid responsible cannot be CO2, since this has a higher dissociation temperature than the hydrocarbons that co-exist in the diamonds; it must therefore have been a hydrocarbon that laid down the diamonds. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> Diamonds will only survive a transport to the low pressure at the surface, if it is accompanied by rapid cooling; if they are taken through a slow cooling process they will turn to graphite, the equilibrium form of carbon at low pressure. Diamond is a metastable form of carbon at the low surface pressure, but the temperature is too low for a relaxation to the stable form. Indeed, diamonds are found predominately in the vicinity of sites of explosive gas eruptions, diamond pipes, where rapid gas expansion caused quick cooling. There is also evidence for pure carbon transported up from depth at a slow rate: pseudomorphs of diamonds. Spaces showing the octahedral symmetry of diamond have been found filled with graphite, in mantle rocks that have come to the surface in Morocco (Pearson and others, 1989). These rocks came up presumably in a slow ascent, and contained a dense array of octahedral spaces filled with graphite, clearly fitting the interpretation as pseudomorphs of diamond. This discovery suggests that a very high density of diamonds exists at least in some locations in the mantle, and that their rarity on the surface is to be attributed to the rarity of the explosive events that could bring them up sufficiently quickly. It is noteworthy that hydrocarbons are found in diamond pipes together with the diamonds, suggesting that the gases involved in the explosive events were not oxidizing (Kravtsov and others, 1976; 1981).</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br />
</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="color: blue; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: x-large; font-weight: bold;">The Surface Carbon Budget</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br />
</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> The deposition of carbonate rocks has been an ongoing process throughout the times of the geologic record. Most, but not all of this carbonate has been an oceanic deposit, deriving the necessary CO2 from the atmospheric-oceanic CO2 store. The amount that is at present in this store is, however, only a very small fraction of the amount required to lay down the carbonates present in the geologic record. The atmospheric-oceanic reservoir holds at present only about 0.01 kg of carbon per cm2 of the Earth's surface area. If we take the figure quoted, of about 20 kg of carbon per cm2 laid down over the time of the identified geologic record, there must have been a supply renewing the atmospheric-oceanic CO2 gradually, but by an amount 2,000 times the present content. This amount of carbon, if calculated as a continuous and steady outgassing rate and initially all coming up as methane, would translate into a one meter deep layer of methane (at STP) being created all over the Earth every 2,700 years. If the rate is regionally variable so that, for example, one tenth of the area produces nine tenths of the amount, then in the gas-prone areas one meter STP methane would come up every 300 years. If natural gas fields are filled from outgassing methane, such a supply rate would be much more than adequate in the timespans available to create all the known fields. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> If the supply of carbon from below ceased, the present rate of laying down carbon would deplete the atmosphere-ocean reservoir in something on the order of 500,000 years, a very short fraction of geologic time. Outgassing of carbon in some form must have been a continuous process; it is not likely that humans evolved just in the last period, just before the death of all plant life. We must therefore inquire what quantities of carbon would have been available at deep levels, in what form this was, and in what manner this resupply of the atmospheric-oceanic CO2 reservoir could have taken place. It is also clear that one cannot discuss the man-made additions to the atmospheric carbon gases without regard to the large and surely variable natural carbon emission that has taken place throughout geologic time. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> The resupply of carbon must be from juvenile sources. Recycling of sediments cannot account for it, both for reasons of the quantities involved and for reasons of the isotopic composition. If the repeated subduction of carbonate rocks occurred on the necessary massive scale, it would seem that old carbonates should have disappeared almost completely. This is not the case. The isotopic information, to which we shall return later, also would say that in a process of continuous recycling the proportion of 13C would continuously increase in the atmosphere, and hence the younger carbonates should be isotopically heavier than the old ones; this also is not the case. Marine carbonates of all ages back to the Archaean show the same narrow range of the carbon isotopic ratio (Schidlowski and others, 1975, see also Figure 4). </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> How much carbonaceous chondrite material would have been required to provide the supply of the surface carbon? Let us make a simple calculation for this. Suppose that in the depth range between 100 and 300 kilometers we have a patchwork in which the carbonaceous chondrite material comprises 20 percent on an average. In this material, carbon amounts to 5 percent. This means, on an average, each square centimeter column through the 200 kilometer layer would contain 1 percent of carbon (5% of 20%), which would translate into 660 kilograms per square centimeter. If one-thirtieth of this had been mobilized and reached the outer crust, it would suffice to account for all the carbon of the carbonate sediments and the sediments of unoxidized carbon. Of course the proportion of carbonaceous chondrite type of material may have been very much larger, and the producing layer much thicker. The fraction that needs to have been mobilized would then be much smaller. All one can really say at this stage is that there is no quantitative problem. Volatile-rich material of sufficient quantity to have supplied the water of the oceans, as discussed by Levin (1958), could quite easily have supplied the quantity of hydrocarbons for all the surface carbon. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> As we have seen, the primary source material in the Earth that would send up a carbon-bearing fluid is likely to be a hydrocarbon mix, not a substance that would produce CO2 in the first place. On the way up, however, some unknown fraction would come on pathways held open by magma, where these fluids would largely be oxidized to CO2 and water. On other pathways, created by pressure fracturing in solid rock, the direct oxidation will be minimal and these fluids may arrive at the surface as methane and other hydrocarbon gases or liquids. However, even in the solid rock a substantial proportion is frequently oxidized at shallow levels, as is indicated by the common presence in oil and gas-rich regions, of carbonate cements. These cements derive from metal oxides initially present in the rocks, and CO2 derived apparently from the oxidation of methane with some oxygen supplied from the rocks; the carbon isotope ratio of these pore-filling cements is not compatible with a derivation from atmospheric CO2, and their distribution fills the pores in a vertical column, suggesting an origin from ascending fluids. This oxidation is probably due to the action of microorganisms that obtain oxygen from components of the rock, and it is then limited to the outer levels of the crust where the temperature is in the range in which microbial activity can take place. It can be presumed quite reasonably that only a fraction of the CO2 so produced will in fact remain in the ground as carbonate, and a substantial fraction, quite possibly the major amount, will escape into the atmosphere. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> A supply of hydrocarbons at depth may thus provide CO2 into the atmospheric-oceanic reservoir in three different ways. One is through volcanic pathways and oxidation with oxygen supplied by the magma; another is by ascent of hydrocarbons through solid rocks and oxidation at shallow levels, most likely by bacterial action, with subsequent escape of CO2 to the atmosphere; a third process will be the escape of methane and other hydrocarbons into the atmosphere, where, in the presence of atmospheric oxygen, they would reside on average 10 years before oxidation to CO2. What fraction of carbon resupply comes by each of these pathways is still not known directly, but some limits can be placed by considerations of the maintenance of the atmospheric oxygen level within the bounds suggested by the geologic record, and possibly by some other more direct measurements. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> Methane in the atmosphere is present at about 1.7 ppm by volume. Much or most of this represents a cycling of atmospheric carbon through biological processes, but the quantitative estimates of the magnitudes and speeds of these processes are not sufficiently precise to determine whether the observed concentration is the one to be expected. One may therefore inquire whether a contribution to this methane directly from outgassing sources is a possibility. Fortunately there is a clear possibility of distinguishing biologically recycled methane from juvenile methane: the radiocarbon (14C) proportion of the biological contribution should be the same as that of atmospheric CO2, since such recycling would almost all take place in a short time compared with the half-life of radiocarbon (5,700 years). Thus carbon from deep sources would be free from radiocarbon. A measurement of the fraction of radiocarbon in atmospheric methane can therefore supply the information. Several such measurements have been attempted, but there are difficulties and uncertainties connected with the sampling method and with the measurement itself. The latest measurements have given values of approximately 32% of non-radiocarbon bearing atmospheric methane (Lowe and others, 1988). Would such values be compatible with a supply of carbon from juvenile sources? </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> We may take, for a simple calculation, methane at 1.7 ppm (vol) and a lifetime of about 10 years against oxidation. Let us suppose that 30% of this is juvenile, and see how this compares with the requirements of the terrestrial carbon budget. The measurements quoted would give an amount of juvenile carbon at present in CH4 in the air of 2 x 10-7 kg carbon/cm2. If this were replenished on a ten year timescale, the lifetime of atmospheric methane, the average supply per year would have to be 2 x 10-8 kg/cm2 year. To lay down the carbon deposits of 20 kg/cm2 entirely from this source would therefore take 1 billion years, a figure compatible with the geologic record. While this cannot be taken to be a confirmation of the results that have been reported, nor of the proportion of the juvenile supply of CH4, it does demonstrate that such measurements are worth doing, and that a substantial fraction of the atmospheric methane may in fact be juvenile. If it is, one must suspect that such a contribution would have large time variations, as have all other tectonic processes, and that therefore much higher or much lower values could be registered at the present time, or at any one time, than the long-term average value. The time variations of atmospheric CH4 reported from ice cores should be seen in the light of these considerations.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br />
</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="color: blue; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: x-large; font-weight: bold;">Thermodynamics of Outgassing</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br />
</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> With the carbonaceous chondrite type of material as the prime source of the surface carbon, the question arises as to the fate of this material under heat and pressure, and in the conditions it would encounter as buoyancy forces drove some of it it towards the surface. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> This problem has been tackled by thermodynamicists, most thoroughly by Chekaliuk (1976). His conclusion was that at sufficient pressure, such as that at a depth of 200 km or so, a mix of hydrocarbon molecules would be the equilibrium configuration, despite a temperature which would be far in excess of the dissociation temperature for these molecules (Figure 1). The pressure would provide these molecules with some stability, although any one molecule may indeed have sufficient internal energy to fall apart at the elevated temperature. At high pressures the assembly as a whole does not have enough energy to generate the increased volume that the dissociated molecules would demand. Fragments will instantly be reformed in such a way as to satisfy the volumetric constraint. No molecule has permanent stability, but a statistical assembly of hydrocarbon molecules will represent an average equilibrium. The detailed mix of molecules will depend on pressure and temperature, and on the carbon - hydrogen ratio present. Other atoms that may be present also, such as oxygen and nitrogen, will form a variety of complex molecules with the carbon and hydrogen. Metal atoms that may be present in the surroundings will form a range of organo-metallic molecules in these circumstances. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> Even with the knowledge that the diamonds and their high-pressure inclusions have provided, it has been argued that hydrocarbons could not come from these deep levels, because they could not survive at temperatures that are reached in the crust at a depth below 20 kilometers (Hunt, 1975); but these discussions in the petroleum literature have not included the effects of pressure. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"><br />
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</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgMyYFrDgraKBKrXTKMtRJo7W0TCjzSRIkz2kcHT8nJ8mLUAT62pU2XNsJFKMqXE9BT_5ppxuuoLYIZoZSmJVpUhXEIwyBm7V_pcVL4XSPJZPu1b1UhTvskH4dWt5YPFtGVjzFS/s1600/001.jpg"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><img alt="" border="0" height="533" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5559440494304819442" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgMyYFrDgraKBKrXTKMtRJo7W0TCjzSRIkz2kcHT8nJ8mLUAT62pU2XNsJFKMqXE9BT_5ppxuuoLYIZoZSmJVpUhXEIwyBm7V_pcVL4XSPJZPu1b1UhTvskH4dWt5YPFtGVjzFS/s640/001.jpg" style="display: block; margin-bottom: 10px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; margin-top: 0px; text-align: center;" width="640" /></span></a></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-weight: bold;">Figure 1</span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">. Stability of hydrocarbons at temperatures and pressures in the Earth (from Chekaliuk, 1976). Pressure-temperature regime of Earth is indicated by the shaded region. Thermodynamic calculations indicate domains in which various hydrocarbon molecules are stable. The lines marked Paraffins, Naphthenes, and Aromatics enclose domains in which a mix of hydrocarbon molecules would be set up from hydrogen and carbon, and on crossing outward from these domains the percentages indicated would be retained. Methane is essentially stable to the left of the line marked 95 percent, and 10 percent would still be retained on crossing to the right of the line so marked (that is, 90 percent would dissociate into hydrogen and carbon). According to these calculations, most of the petroleum components would be present in equilibrium of a carbon-hydrogen mix at a depth between 100 and 300 km, and methane streaming up could bring a significant fraction of these petroleum components toward the surface. b, bar; kb, kilobar; km, kilometer; m, meter; T, temperature.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The statistical mix of hydrocarbon molecules expected from a carbonaceous chondrite source material, being less dense than the surrounding rock, would have buoyancy forces driving it towards the surface. If present in a locality in sufficient concentration, the fluid will fracture the solid rock, and ascend in such fracture porosity. (Molecular diffusion in rock over large distances is too slow a process to be of any significance, even on the long time-scales of geology.) In that upward travel, the temperature and the pressure would be decreasing, and the various molecules would reach levels where the temperature was low enough for them to achieve stability. Each one of these molecules would then cease the "musical chairs" game, and become effectively permanent. If there is a high ratio of hydrogen to carbon in the stream, saturated hydrocarbons would become a major component, and, with sufficient hydrogen, methane, the most stable of all the hydrocarbon molecules, may become by far the dominant component. At depth methane will behave chemically like a liquid, and it will dissolve the heavier hydrocarbons that may be present, and therefore greatly reduce the viscosity of the entire fluid. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The continuing upward stream would acquire more and more of such unchangeable molecules, and the final product that may be caught in the reservoirs we tap for oil and gas, is the end product of this process. The detailed chemistry of the oils in each region then represents this final phase of the oil molecules on their way up, and that chemistry will be determined by the pressure-temperature regime the flow has experienced, the initial hydrogen-carbon ratio of the mix, and possibly surface catalytic actions and contributions from the rocks through which the flow has gone. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">At shallow levels and low pressures, methane, now a gas, will separate out from the heavier components, leaving those as fluids of higher viscosity, and therefore much more subject to retention in reservoir rocks: the quantities of methane that would need to have been in the stream to facilitate the transport of oils, would be many times larger than that of the oils, but because of the great mobility of methane gas, most of it would fail to be retained in the ground at shallow levels. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br />
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: blue; font-size: x-large;"> Horizontal and Vertical Patterns of Hydrocarbon Fields</span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br />
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</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> Everyone now thinks of Arabia, the Persian Gulf, Iran and Iraq as being the oil region of the world. It is indeed one connected large patch that is oil-rich, stretching for 2,700 km from the mountains of Eastern Turkey down through the Tigris Valley of Iraq and through the Zagros Mountains of Iran into the Persian Gulf, into Saudi Arabia and further south into Oman (Figure 2). There is no feature that the geology or the topography of this entire large region has in common, and that would give any hint why it would all be oil and gas rich. The various oil deposits are in different types of rock, in rocks of quite different ages, and they are overlaid by quite different caprocks. They are in a topography of folded mountains in Turkey and the high Zagros mountains of Iran, in the river valley of the Tigris in Iraq, in the Persian Gulf itself, in the flat plains of Arabia and in the mountainous regions of Oman. It cannot have been a matter of chance that this connected region had so prolific a supply of oil and gas, but resulting from totally different circumstances in different parts of the region. These hydrocarbon-bearing formations represent times so different from each other that there would have been no similarity in the climate or in the types of vegetation that existed there during deposition, just as there is no similarity in the reservoir rocks or in the caprocks of the different regions now. Yet it is a striking fact that the detailed chemistry of these oils is similar over the whole of this large region (Kent and Warman, 1972). Surely this is an example of the need to invoke a larger scale phenomenon for the cause of the oil supply than any scale we can see in the geology of the outer crust. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br />
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</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span style="font-weight: bold;">Figure 2</span>. Oil fields of the Middle East, showing continuous region from Turkey to Oman. The dots represent individual fields, and the size of each dot indicates the magnitude of the field. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The island arc of Indonesia, of which Java and Sumatra are the main components, belongs to a much larger pattern of an arc, that stretches from the western tip of New Guinea through these Indonesian islands into the Indian Ocean, through the Andaman Islands up into the Irrawaddi valley of Burma, and on into the high mountains of Southern China, over a total length of 6,000 km (Figure 3). That it is one connected arc all the way cannot be doubted because the frequency of earthquakes along the whole of this arc is hundreds of times greater than outside. Along the whole of this arc petroleum is very abundant. But at one end this arc is made up of volcanic islands; at the other end, in Burma and China, it is in continental material with folded mountains. Again there are great age differences and differences in every aspect of the geology in which the oilfields exist; but here we have a unifying feature, namely the belt of earthquakes and volcanoes which stretches over this entire length, and which points to causes in the deeper crust or in the mantle. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Many other examples can be quoted and they all point to the same conclusion: oil-rich regions seem to be defined by much larger-scale patterns than those we see in the surface geology or topography of the region. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br />
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</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span style="font-weight: bold;">Figure 3</span>. Petroleum and tectonic map of Southeast Asia. The map shows the belt of hydrocarbon occurrence paralleling the volcanic and earthquake belt from New Guinea, through the southern islands of Indonesia, Java, and Sumatra, through the Andaman Islands and on into the Irrawaddy valley of Burma and the mountains of southern China. Data compiled from World Seismicity Map (Tarr, 1974) and from the Oil and Natural Gas Map of Asia (revised 1975), published by the United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (ESCAP). M, earthquake magnitude. </span><br />
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</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> Another global observation of similar significance is the vertical stacking of hydrocarbons deposits, Kudryavtsev's Rule: "Any region in which hydrocarbons are found at one level will be seen to have hydrocarbons in large or small quantities, but at all levels down to and into the basement rock." The most common sequence is to find gas at the deepest levels, oil above, sometimes more gas above the oil, and coal at the shallowest. If one examines gas, oil and coal maps of different parts of the globe, one finds this rule repeated very frequently. It holds in most of the Middle East: many oil wells in Iran have penetrated through large coal deposits. Deep underneath the oil of the Gulf States, large gas fields have been discovered. Almost all the oil wells of Java and Sumatra have drilled through coal, and even the deep gas of Oklahoma is often underneath coal. What we are seeing is principally a succession of hydrocarbons with diminishing hydrogen content as one goes from the deepest to the shallowest. One presumes that bacterial action, which attacks the hydrogen rich hydrocarbons first, has been largely responsible for the progressive hydrogen depletion of upwelling hydrocarbons. For coal, the situation is more complex because biology can be involved in another way also. In a hydrocarbon outgassing area, the ground water is held strongly anoxic because hydrocarbon oxidizing bacteria are abundant there, and quickly remove atmospheric oxygen carried in that water. The result is that the normal processes of fermentation of plant material, which would turn the carbon back to the atmospheric CO2, will be interrupted. Hydrocarbon outgassing areas tend to become swamps filled with the insoluble carbon of plant material. What plant fossils there are in bituminous coal (frequently there are none) are often themselves filled with the same homogeneous coal as that which surrounds them, suggesting a carbon source different from the fossilized plant material itself. It would not seem possible that plant material was converted into the homogeneous coal, and yet that a fraction survived as fossils with a precise maintenance of detail; and that this was then filled by the homogeneous coal derived from similar material. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> The huge gas deposits in the form of methane hydrates in the oceans may not have an adequate explanation in terms of the plant debris of the ocean mud. There is often little organic mud and its gaseous products would not have migrated downwards. Yet it has been said by the Russian investigators (Makogan, 1988) that, so far as they could see, in every location on the ocean floor and in the permafrost of the North where the temperature-pressure situation would make methane hydrates stable, they are found. As the deeper ocean regions are being investigated for hydrates, the inadequacy of a biological source material for them may become even more obvious, since the biological deposits there tend to be much smaller than in the continental shelf regions that have been the principal targets so far. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> Every deep hole that has been drilled into the crystalline basement, by several Soviet deep drilling programs, by the German on-going deep drilling efforts, by the deep drilling into the Swedish granite, has shown the presence of hydrocarbons at depth. While the quantities vary regionally, the indications we now have would point to a ubiquitous presence of some amounts at deep levels everywhere. Even small amounts of methane or of hydrogen at the deeper levels in the rocks show that equilibration between the oxygen fugacity of the rocks and of the fluids has not taken place, since in chemical equilibrium these fluids could not be present. The explanation for this is that only a small fraction of the volume of the rocks could equilibrate by diffusive processes with the fluid streaming through pores; the pore fluids determine the oxygen levels in these cracks, the rest of the rock takes no part in this. Chemical equilibrium calculations are meaningful only in situations where the rocks and the fluids are much more tightly intermixed, such as in gases streaming through molten rocks. There each moving gas bubble keeps meeting new rock material to provide oxygen, and in these circumstances most carbon reaches the surface in oxidized form as CO2. In solid rock there is a mixture of various proportions of methane and CO2, frequently with methane as the major quantity. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> Since methane hydrate formation is a very efficient means of retaining any upward streaming methane, even regions with low rates of methane emission would still build up hydrates in the long course of time. CO2 hydrates could exist also, but very little of this has so far been found, presumably because the cool, non-volcanic regions produce mainly methane, and the hot regions do not lay down hydrates. If plant debris were responsible, CO2 would be a major component of the gases produced, and CO2 hydrates should be common. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> If hydrocarbon outgassing is in fact a major source of the surface carbon excess, then one must of course consider whether it is also a major source of all the carbonaceous deposits that are found in the crust. The frequent compliance with Kudryavtsev's Rule would have no explanation for any other mode of deposition. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> It has often been argued that oil deposits are in the vicinity of "source-rocks", rocks that contain carbonaceous materials which have been assumed to come from biological deposits. Most commonly these rocks are shales, and their hydrocarbon content often shows a close chemical match to that of the oil pool in the vicinity. This has been taken to verify the source-rock concept; but it would only do so if these shales were generally particularly rich in discerible fossils. This is not the case, and there is no reason for attributing their hydrocarbon content to anything other than a supply from the same source as that of the neighboring oil. The so called "source-rocks" can be regarded as a further demonstration of Kudryavtsev's Rule.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br />
</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="color: blue; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: x-large; font-weight: bold;">Interpretations Based on the Carbon Stable Isotopes</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br />
</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> Carbon has two stable isotopes; 12C (6 protons, 6 neutrons) and 13C (6 protons, 7 neutrons). The natural carbon on the Earth contains predominantly 12C , and 13C is mixed in at a level of approximately 1 percent. This mixing ratio must have been determined in the nuclear processes in the stars that cooked up the elements and eventually supplied them to form the planets. There are no processes that could occur on the planets that would be able to change this ratio greatly. Only small variations can be produced, not by any effects on the nuclei themselves, but only by processes that show a slight preference and select in favor of either the light or the heavy isotope. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> The study of the distribution of the carbon isotopes in relation to petroleum and natural gas has a very extensive literature. We shall discuss here only one aspect of it: can isotope measurements determine whether a hydrocarbon compound was derived from biological material or whether it is primordial? Because many petroleum geologists have considered that such a distinction can be made, and that petroleum and natural gas appear on that basis to be usually of biological origin, it is clear that we must address this aspect here. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> A selection process that enriches one or other isotope is usually referred to as a process of "fractionation." The resulting fractionated material is referred to as isotopically light or isotopically heavy, depending on the ratio of the lighter to the heavier isotope. Measurements of the slight variations in the carbon isotope ratio in different samples is usually not done in absolute terms, but by comparison with a norm, and the small departures from this norm are then the quantities noted. The norm that has been selected for this purpose is a marine carbonate rock called Pee Dee Belemnite, or PDB, and this norm has a carbon isotope value that is about in the middle of the distribution of all the marine carbonates. The measurements are then quoted as the departure of the 13C content of the sample from that of the norm, and the figure is usually given in parts per thousand (permil) and referred to as the d13C value of the sample. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> Unoxidized carbon in plants derives from atmospheric carbon dioxide by the process of photosynthesis. In this process the light isotope is slightly favored. As a result this carbon is slightly depleted in 13C relative to atmospheric carbon dioxide, and the effect is larger than that occurring in any other single nonbiological chemical process recognized in nature. When it was found that most of the deposits of unoxidized carbon, like petroleum, methane, coal and kerogen, show also a marked depletion of 13C, it was considered that this confirmed their biological origin. d13C for plant organic carbon is generally in the range of -8 to -35 permil (PDB standard). The atmospheric carbon dioxide from which that carbon derived is at -6 per mil, showing the possibility of a large fractionation effect. Marine carbonates laid down from atmospheric carbon dioxide dissolved in ocean water have d13C values ranging from about +5 to -5 permil (average 0) and thus evidently a fractionation averaging 6 permil occurs in favor of the heavy isotope during that process. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> In the production of methane from plant debris a further fractionation takes place that again favors the light isotope, and plant-derived methane is therefore isotopically even lighter and its d13C plots at -50 to -80 permil. In the literature we now find that some arbitrary division has generally been assumed, so that carbon with d13C values lighter than -30 permil is regarded as of biological origin, while heavier carbon is taken to be from some other source. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> There is no clear division in the actual data. Carbonaceous materials have d13C values spanning the range from +20 to -110 permil on the Earth, and they span an even larger range in the carbonaceous meteorites. There is no natural dividing point in the data and the choice of a particular figure in this continuous distribution, for making the distinction between organic and inorganic origin seems very arbitrary. The question is of course what other fractionation processes can select in favor of the light isotope. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br />
</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiclKeFqDYzJQQ0OgOTB-wGSx6RaGDDjvnbjFZ7Xs9FweXnpp4smQwULEUkPbGPTtp3d7r9Y6xhjcWU_FAiLkTdwTD15YsZfIJJl858H4QCoDKrLeaGlptUALvj72ngdPS2R4dv/s1600/004.jpg"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><img alt="" border="0" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5559441408313242482" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiclKeFqDYzJQQ0OgOTB-wGSx6RaGDDjvnbjFZ7Xs9FweXnpp4smQwULEUkPbGPTtp3d7r9Y6xhjcWU_FAiLkTdwTD15YsZfIJJl858H4QCoDKrLeaGlptUALvj72ngdPS2R4dv/s1600/004.jpg" style="display: block; margin-bottom: 10px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; margin-top: 0px; text-align: center;" /></span></a></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-weight: bold;">Figure 4</span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">. Distribution of ratio (expressed as d13C) of the stable isotopes 13C and 12C in different terrestrial materials. Methane and carbonate cements span a much larger range of these isotope ratios than all other forms of terrestrial carbon. PDB, Peedee belemnite.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">A look at the distribution of the carbon isotope ratio in different natural forms of carbon gives immediately a strong suggestion (Figure 4). Just methane, the only carbon-bearing molecule that is light enough to suffer significant isotopic fraction, shows the largest spread of values. The atmospheric carbon dioxide from which marine carbonates have been deposited throughout geological time seems to have had a remarkably constant isotopic ratio, so that d13C values for nearly all these carbonates fall into the range of -5 to +5 permil. d13C in petroleum has a fairly narrow range, from -20 to -38 permil. Carbonate (calcite) cements in the rocks have d13C values spanning the second widest range. This fact by itself would suggest that the carbonate cements are generally produced from methane, and their shift of between 20 and 40 permil heavier than the range for methane suggests that a fractionation occurs when methane is oxidized in the ground and then combined with calcium oxide to produce the carbonate cement. Everything in the data points to such a process. These cements are found in great quantity overlying gas and oil fields. They are usually isotopically lighter than marine carbonates, the lightest among them as light as -65 permil. Where methane and carbonate cements are found in the same location the methane is usually isotopically lighter than the carbonate by between 20 to 60 permil. The overall isotopic distribution of methane and carbonate cements show a similar shift. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br />
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</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhcdRMO8EFaX9a3GqOiUUi0RFQ_gNRicejUw2yGvHpaMuOXwlBGWNVBjjlcvh4qYPMLtTIGaOsea4OZDJTWAcJPTNL73Pxl-JE0lcpwKQlG7TI80bd9fqTq42qWkFAepUg_uO59/s1600/005.jpg"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><img alt="" border="0" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5559441573241113682" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhcdRMO8EFaX9a3GqOiUUi0RFQ_gNRicejUw2yGvHpaMuOXwlBGWNVBjjlcvh4qYPMLtTIGaOsea4OZDJTWAcJPTNL73Pxl-JE0lcpwKQlG7TI80bd9fqTq42qWkFAepUg_uO59/s1600/005.jpg" style="display: block; margin-bottom: 10px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; margin-top: 0px; text-align: center;" /></span></a></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br />
</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-weight: bold;">Figure 5</span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">. Carbon isotope ratios (expressed as d13C) of methane plotted against depth of occurrence (from Galimov, 1969). Although there is much variability in this relationship, it is almost always true that where methane is found at different levels in the same area, the methane is isotopically lighter (contains less 13C) the shallower the level.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Galimov (1969), a major contributor to the carbon isotope investigations, saw that in any vertical column methane tends to be isotopically lighter, the shallower the level. This appears to be true irrespective of the type or age of the formation from which the sample was taken.(Figure 5). It is most unlikely that in all those cases methane from two different sources mixed in such a fashion. A much better explanation is that a progressive fractionation of the methane had taken place in its upward migration. Some of this methane appears to be lost to oxidation, ending up as carbon dioxide (Figure 6), and a fraction of that in turn as calcite cements. This oxidation process seems to prefer the heavy isotope and so the remaining methane gets isotopically lighter on the way up. At each level the calcite thus derives from the already fractionated methane and so it also will become lighter, tracking the methane but always remaining heavier than the methane at that same level. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br />
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</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhRjM2yzM7QevoYcXrylvJmdTWiqmr4D1xJv8jNh5tJOpnKevi_aQfVt4ljETkd_4A3nU3f6ncUk9_YF2g1gvUQLtZ5Nb3dyu5EGdwNYNCe25MVRhk462rYdCShiGD9F8muKK1Q/s1600/006.jpg"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><img alt="" border="0" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5559441702230335858" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhRjM2yzM7QevoYcXrylvJmdTWiqmr4D1xJv8jNh5tJOpnKevi_aQfVt4ljETkd_4A3nU3f6ncUk9_YF2g1gvUQLtZ5Nb3dyu5EGdwNYNCe25MVRhk462rYdCShiGD9F8muKK1Q/s1600/006.jpg" style="display: block; margin-bottom: 10px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; margin-top: 0px; text-align: center;" /></span></a></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br />
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</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span style="font-weight: bold;">Figure 6</span>. Comparison of the carbon isotope ratios (expressed as d13C) of methane and coexisting carbon dioxide in ocean-floor sediments (from Galimov and Kvenvolden, 1983). The carbon isotope ratios of the two gases seem to follow the same depth dependence, but with the CO2 always isotopically heavier than the methane. This is the pattern to be expected if progressive fractionation were happening, with the CO2 produced (probably by bacterial oxidation) from methane moving upward through the crust. Both the methane and the CO2 produced would become isotopically lighter on the way up, but the CO2 would be heavier by a constant amount than the methane from which it was derived. (This is not the interpretation given by the authors of the article.) </span><br />
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</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> Progressive fractionation is an important process because it can drive the remaining material to a very much greater fractionation than could be done by any single chemical step. It is of course the technique used for commercial isotope separation, where extremely large fractionation factors are required. In our case two effects work in the same sense, helping to create the result. One is the tendency for the oxide to bind slightly more tightly with the heavier carbon isotope (in CO2), and in equilibrium conditions at a low temperature the heavy isotope will therefore be enriched in the oxide and depleted in the remaining methane. The other effect is the diffusion speed, which for methane with the heavier isotope and a mass number of 17, will be 3 percent slower than for the light methane with a mass number of 16. This means that in any circumstance where methane is diffusing through a barrier to fill a reservoir, the light isotope methane will enter initially with a 30 per mil enrichment. If this reservoir were to fill another, the light isotope enrichment would augment. Differential removal by oxydation, by different solubilities in water, by different adsorption on solids, by bacterial attack, will all affect the final result of a slow percolation of methane through diverse strata of rock. Since in any such progressive fractionation the final effect can be arbitrarily large, one cannot conclude that a large fractionation implies that of a single step process, namely the one that occurs in plants. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> The constancy of the isotopic ratio of marine carbonates spanning all ages deserves further comment. If at any time between the Archean and the present a large change had taken place in the amount of plant debris that was buried, and if this plant debris was, as is usual, isotopically light, then more of the light isotope would have been taken out of the atmospheric-oceanic carbon dioxide reservoir. The remaining CO2 in that reservoir would have been driven to a slightly heavier composition. If as much as one-fifth of the buried carbon was in the form of such plant debris, then the shift in the remaining atmospheric carbon and the resulting shift in the carbonates laid down from it should have been readily observable. When land vegetation suddenly proliferated in Silurian times, for example, one might well think that twice as much unoxidized plant material was buried as before this event. Why is there no change in the isotopic ratio of marine carbonates in that epoch? An explanation that the primordial supply suffered a change in the isotopic ratio just sufficient to compensate is improbable. A more likely explanation is that the quantity of biological debris that is buried is a much smaller fraction than the one usually assumed. The reason for this may be that the identification of much of the buried carbonaceous material as plant debris is not correct and that a large proportion of this material derived directly from hydrocarbons ascending from the mantle. The extra contribution made by the time-variable burial of plant debris may then be so small an effect that it does not show in the isotopic ratio of the carbonates. Of course if all the dispersed kerogen and the oil shales, which have been regarded as source material for oil pools, were derived from the primary hydrocarbons, then this discrepancy would disappear. It is worth noting that the amount of carbon that would have been contained in certifiable fossils is a very small quantity by comparison. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> The remarkable constancy of isotope values of marine carbonates also affects the question mentioned earlier, of the amount of carbon that may be coming up as a result of the heating of subducted sediment. In such a process some or all of the carbonates may be dissociated and the CO2 may come to the surface. Much of the unoxidized carbon that is in the same sediment, whether it derives from plants or from a primordial hydrocarbon supply, is known to be isotopically much lighter. Of that, only a fraction would be turned into liquids or gases, limited by the availability of hydrogen; the remainder would eventually turn into elemental carbon--graphite or anthracite--and in that form it would be insoluble and stable, and would not be returned to the atmosphere. A process of multiple recycling of sedimentary carbon would therefore always take away more of the light isotope than of the heavy, and this would drive the atmospheric-oceanic CO2 to a heavier isotope value. Recycling of sediments cannot account for a significant fraction of the resupply of atmospheric CO2 over geologic time.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br />
</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="color: blue; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: x-large; font-weight: bold;">The Helium Association with Petroleum</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br />
</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> On the basis of hydrocarbon outgassing from great depth, we understand immediately why various trace elements, especially helium, should be so commonly associated with deposits of oil and gas. The long pathway through pressure created fracture porosity in the rocks will, of course, sweep up whatever helium was available in those pores. Helium is generated in the rocks by the radioactive decay of uranium and thorium, but at too low a concentration to create a fracture porosity or hold it open. Its transport is therefore dependent entirely on a carrier gas, such as the more abundant hydrocarbons may provide. Helium is not only strongly associated with hydrocarbon deposits, it has even been noted to be particularly enriched in gas-oil reservoirs, more so than in dry gas reservoirs (Nikonov, 1973). It is also particularly enriched in reservoirs having a high nitrogen content. Any chemical or biological cause for the enrichment can be ruled out for the chemically inert helium. Only variations in the concentrations of the parent radioactive elements, and variations in the the length of pathway through the rocks from which the helium has been swept, can come under consideration for an explanation of the great regional differences of the observed helium concentration. Where large variations have to be explained, such as by a factor of 100 or more from one location to another, the lenth of pathway through which the carrier gas has swept is likely to have been the dominant effect. If carrier gases from a depth of 300 km are involved in one case, while only gases from the depth of sediment are involved in another, then this variant will outweigh any likely variation in the concentration of the radioactive elements. The helium concentration in a gas is then mainly an indication of the depth from which this gas has come. With this explanation one would conclude that nitrogen frequently derives from the deepest levels of any of the volatiles, and oil from the next deepest; dry methane sometimes from shallower levels still, but all from levels far deeper than the sediment. Helium enrichment is not found in sediment in the absence of larger amounts of hydrocarbons or nitrogen, and ten percent helium in methane-nitrogen gases is the highest concentration that has been found. Yet if helium could flow without a carrier gas, there should be many locations where amounts of helium had accumulated that were similar to the amounts of helium in some gas-fields, but now, in the absence of methane or nitrogen, they would be pure helium fields. Such fields would have been discovered, and would be very valuable. Their absence thus certifies the carrier gas concept for helium transport. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> Some information can be gained from a study of the isotopic composition of the helium. Helium has two stable isotopes, helium-4 and helium-3. Most of the helium found on Earth is helium-4, the result of the radioactive decay of uranium and thorium. In the atmosphere helium is present at a concentration of 5.24 ppm by volume. The helium-3 isotope, which is much less abundant, is present in the atmosphere at about 1.4 parts of helium-3 to a million parts of helium-4. In the surface of the Sun and in the Solar Wind one observes a ratio of helium-3 to helium-4 of 3 x 10 -4, or about 200 times higher than the ratio in our atmosphere. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> The primordial helium that was incorporated in the Earth as a small impurity in the rock grains must have been more similar to the solar composition and thus much richer in helium-3 than any present day terrestrial helium. But the total quantity that was brought in by the grains was small and so the continuous production of helium-4 from the radioactive decay became the major contributor to helium in all locations on the Earth. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> While a small proportion of helium-3 can also be produced by radioactivity in an interaction involving uranium and lithium, this is not thought to be a major contribution to the Earth's helium-3. The lithium production of helium-3 in the most ideal circumstances, where lithium and uranium are in close association, could be as high as to give 3He/4He ratios of 1.2 x 10 -5, or ten times the ratio in the atmosphere (Morrison and Pine, 1955). But this would occur only in some rare minerals, and the average production in the crust of the Earth of helium-3 has been estimated as at least a hundred times lower. This means that in any location where we find a helium-3 to helium-4 ratio of more than one-tenth the atmospheric value, it is probably due to a contribution of some primordial helium. In those cases we then know that we are dealing with a gas that has at least a component that must have come from deep rocks, since the crust in its formation process would have largely outgassed, and primordial helium would not have been maintained there. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> However, we cannot assume the converse. Where the proportion of helium-3 is low, the gas may well have come from mantle depths also, since in a mantle that was never all liquid, the gas content could never have become a uniform mix, nor could it have remained a uniform mix if the rates of outgassing were different in different regions. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> Where a carrier gas has washed through pore spaces that it has created, it will have transported the mix of primordial and radiogenic helium that happens to have been there. If such a flow has been going on for a long time, then the primordial component will have been depleted, while the continuously produced radiogenic component will still be present. The heliun-3 proportion will have suffered a dilution throughout the existence of this flow. Pore spaces that have been flushed for a long time would have low helium-3 values, but there would be no reason to assume that such gases derived from a smaller depth. While the presence of a high helium-3 value is indicative of young pathways from mantle depths, helium with low helium-3 values does not give a firm indication of its depth of origin. Great concentrations of any helium, however, suggest that sweeping by a carrier gas on long pathways has been responsible, and this in itself is an indication of a deep origin. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> The partial pressure at which helium is found, whether as a collection under a caprock or anywhere else, may also serve as in indication of its depth of origin. As an inert gas, it cannot have had its partial pressure increased from that of its point of origin by any chemical action. In any flow, its partial pressure must always decrease; only the (unlikely) circumstance a mechanical pumping action could ever cause an increase. Helium must have derived generally from a location where the radioactive decay could produce the partial pressure at which it is found, or a yet higher one. This is an important consideration in estimating whether helium in a location could come from the radioactivity of the surrounding rocks or whether it has come from greater depths. For this calculation one has to take into consideration not only the local concentration of uranium and thorium, but the helium porosity that the rock has (the volume of pore spaces large enough to be occupied by the helium atom, which includes many imperfections in the rock crystals, and will therefore represent a larger volume than the porosity presented to a gas of larger molecular size). At deeper levels, where the rocks are subjected to a high lithostatic pressure, the helium porosity will be small, and a given radioactive concentration will send the resulting helium into smaller volumes, and therefore set up correspondingly higher partial pressures. This consideration shows that in many locations, even where natural gas has a comparatively high helium content, the local rock cannot have supplied it. It explains why helium measurements at or near the surface seem to be successful in finding hydrocarbons underneath (Roberts, 1980), but rarely successful as a means of prospecting for uranium deposits. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> Regional patterns of helium abundance have been observed in which the helium concentration and the helium partial pressure are far higher than the sediments could have produced in their entire age (Pierce and others, 1964), but where the patterns of gas composition (ratios of components) stretch horizontally over distances very large compared with any particular gasfield of the region. The helium must certainly have come from below the sediment, and it must have arrived there already in regionally well-defined mixing ratios with methane and initrogen, so that the different fields of the region could all be filled with the same or a closely similar mix. Only a mix that had entered the sediment and its individual gas fields from below could achieve that (Gold and Held, 1987).</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br />
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</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="color: blue; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: x-large; font-weight: bold;">Relation of Outgassing of Hydrocarbons to Atmospheric Oxygen</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br />
</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> The problem of the maintenance of the atmospheric oxygen levels within the bounds suggested by the geologic record has not yet been solved satisfactorily, but it is clearly closely related to the carbon supply. Photosynthesis in the plants produces free oxygen by the dissociation of water. If none of the products of photosynthesis escaped from the circulation of atmosphere and biosphere, if fermentation returned all the content of carbon and hydrogen in plant debris back to the atmosphere as carbon dioxide and water (the form in which it was taken up by the plants), then there would be no net gain or loss of atmospheric oxygen. If some hydrogen were to escape, however, as hydrogen does escape from the upper atmosphere into space, or if it were laid down in hydrides or other hydrogen compounds in the sediment, then for every two hydrogen atoms so removed, there would be one oxygen atom that would constitute a net addition to the atmosphere. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> If all the fresh carbon supply that the atmosphere receives came in as CO2, and if all the carbon laid down in the sediment were in the form of carbonate rocks (i.e. CaO from rocks combinig with CO2 to make Ca CO3), then also this process would neither add nor subtract from the atmospheric oxygen. If, however, as is generally thought, about one-fifth of the carbon that is laid down is in the form of plant debris, then there would be constantly a large addition to the atmospheric oxygen. For each carbon atom that is so buried there would be at most one oxygen atom and at most two hydrogen atoms (polysaccharides like cellulose are (C6H10O5)x). Every carbon atom that came up in the form of CO2 provides two oxygen atoms, while the burial of that carbon atom would bury only one oxygen atom and take away possibly as many as two hydrogen atoms that had derived from the dissociation of water and would not now be available to reform a water molecule with its photosynthetically liberated oxygen atom. Thus, for every carbon atom laid down as biological debris, approximately two oxygen atoms would be liberated. For the figures given, of 20 kg/cm2 of total carbon laid down, one-fifth in biological materials, the total amount of oxygen left over to join the atmosphere would be 10.6 kg/cm2 of O2. That is more than 50 times the present atmospheric oxygen content. All carbon being supplied as CO2, and one-fifth laid down in plant debris, the rest as carbonate rocks, does not seem a possible scenario over long periods of geologic time. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> If a fraction of the juvenile carbon was supplied as CH4, that would diminish the oxygen excess, as both the carbonates and the organic carbon would lay down some oxygen, and the left-over hydrogen would form water, using up more atmospheric oxygen. Of course this could make the balance towards no gain or loss of atmospheric oxygen. But to maintain the atmospheric oxygen level within the bounds given by the geologic record, the supply of carbon as methane and as CO2, and the laying down of carbon in the sediment would have to be balanced very precisely, since both involve such large quantities of oxygen compared to the atmospheric oxygen content. One could not attribute such constancy nor the chance of just producing the balance, to tectonically controlled events over long periods of time. Some powerful stabilizing effect would have to be at work. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> What are the limits on the excursions of atmospheric oxygen content that the geologic record can provide? In all the times that forests have existed, oxygen levels cannot have been higher than the present by more than a few percent, for we are now not far from that concentration at which fires would make it impossible for forests and many other major land plants to survive. In earlier times, before the emergence of large land plants in the Silurian, there may have been periods of higher oxygen values, and such periods have been suggested to account for the oxidation states of iron in some ancient sediments. The other limit, that of low oxygen values, can only be estimated from the oxygen requirements of animals both in seawater and on land, and from the oxidation state of some sediments. Again this limit cannot be set very far below the present values for all the periods back to the Cambrian, in which oxygen-breathing fishes have existed. Before these epochs the limits may have been wider. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> What could be the stabilizing influences that are at work? The laying down of inorganic sediments may have a stabilizing effect, as these sediments can become more highly oxidized than the basement rocks from which they derived. A large amount of sulfur may be present now in a more highly oxidized state than that in which it came to the surface. Another stabilizing effect may be the escape of hydrogen from the Earth into space. In the presence of smaller atmospheric oxygen values, more hydrogen liberated by photosynthesis could diffuse into the outer atmosphere without being caught by oxidation, thereby leaving more oxygen behind. It is doubtful, however, that such large quantities of oxygen could have been liberated or absorbed in these processes as would be required, or that the stabilizing effect could have the required strength to keep the atmospheric oxygen levels within the narow bounds. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> Perhaps the strongest stabilizing effect would be the control that the atmospheric oxygen concentration must have on the amount of plant debris that will be buried before being re-oxidized. Higher oxygen levels in the air, and hence in groundwater, will diminish the areas of swamps and of anoxic lakes, ponds and seas, the locations in which plant material would escape the fermentation processes that would turn the carbon back to CO2, thereby taking away atmospheric oxygen. Conversely, low oxygen would favor anoxic deposition, leaving more oxygen behind. Possibly this effect could be sufficiently powerful. However with the imprecise knowledge of the amounts of plant material buried in different epochs, with the strong possibility that deposits of organic carbon are in significant part due to upwelling hydrocarbons and not all to plant debris, and with the inexact knowledge of the ratio of oxidized to unoxidized carbon in the primary carbon supply to the surface, no firm judgment can yet be made.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br />
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<span style="color: blue; font-size: x-large;">The Mechanics of the Ascent of Fluids through the Crust</span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br />
</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> There are two principal methods of ascent towards the surface of fluids that are liberated in the mantle and that are of lesser density than that of the rock, and hence buoyant relative to it. One is the ascent in volcanic regions, where magma, with its density closely similar to that of the surrounding rock, can hold open vertical pathways down to depths of a hundred kilometers or more. Any other fluids that can pressure fracture the rock and make their way through cracks into such lava channels can then move upward by buoyancy forces, and quickly reach the surface. Hydrogen and hydrocarbons would, as we have said, be largely oxidized in bubbling through magma, but the extent of this oxidation would of course depend on the relative proportions of hydrocarbons and magma at any time. There are strong indications that small amounts of gases coming out of volcanoes at quiet times are largely oxidized, while in violent eruptions the unoxidized gases--hydrogen and methane--are prominent. On many occasions flames have been reported during major eruptions, and have been seen as quite distinct from the ejection of hot material. During the episodes of the Krakatoa eruption below the sea surface, a large region of flames above the water were observed, in this case of course in the complete absence of any confusing sprays of lava. But even at quiet times some volcanoes emit enough combustible gases to burn above the lava lake. This has been observed in the Hawaiian volcanoes and also in volcanoes of the African Rift. Volcanic eruptions in Java have delivered ashes containing several percent of unoxidized carbon. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> The other possible manner of ascent of fluids from the mantle is the build-up of sufficient fluid pressure to fracture the rock and create pathways (Gold and Soter, 1984, 1985). For such pathways to stay open, the pressure in the rock due to the overburden weight, and the fluid pressure in the pore spaces, have to be closely similar. Since rock is extremely weak in tension, a fluid pressure higher than the lithostatic value will quickly create more fractures. In compression rock is much stronger and pore spaces will only be crushed shut when the pore pressure deficit exceeds a certain value. If one considers fluids that are less dense than the rock, then any connected system of pore spaces filled with such fluids will have a smaller pressure gradient with depth than that of the surrounding rock. At the top of such a domain the pressure may be close to that in the rock (the lithostatic pressure). The bottom of such a domain will then have a deficit of pressure and since this cannot exceed a value defined by the compressive strength of the rock, there will be a limit to the vertical height that such a domain can occupy (Figure 7 ). In the volcanic case, the dense lava with its pressure gradient closely similar to that of the surrounding rock, can keep open a channel to a depth of a hundred kilometers or more. In the case where the fluid is a hydrocarbon or water, and hence of of much lower density, it is only an interval of a few kilometers that can be held open; an interval whose height can be calculated from a knowledge of the compressive strength of the rock, and vertical pressure gradients in rock and fluid, given by their respective densities. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br />
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</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjDgSS-4_905a1SpuVfwJ-7Li64fccwEdjD2wXIZ3lEV9_DYUFPXeb5YXkH6pjm9aJQiJSSKjDGF8uxCi742agFdibIaDF1PYhL1S4hSONlMJh8DC2UqHYDFMnUGBJYMCD4eDu8/s1600/007.jpg"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><img alt="" border="0" height="382" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5559441821191354994" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjDgSS-4_905a1SpuVfwJ-7Li64fccwEdjD2wXIZ3lEV9_DYUFPXeb5YXkH6pjm9aJQiJSSKjDGF8uxCi742agFdibIaDF1PYhL1S4hSONlMJh8DC2UqHYDFMnUGBJYMCD4eDu8/s400/007.jpg" style="display: block; margin-bottom: 10px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; margin-top: 0px; text-align: center;" width="400" /></span></a></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br />
</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-weight: bold;">Figure 7</span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">. Schematic diagram showing pressure of rock due to overburden and pressure of fluid (less dense than the rock) in connected pore spaces. Pc denotes critical pressure difference (between rock pressure and fluid pressure) at which the rock compressive strength is inadequate to maintain pores. Dashed lines indicate fluid pressures that are physically unrealizable because of the limited compressive strength of the rock.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br />
</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> These limitations do not mean that gases or liquids are prevented from making their way up. If fluids are evolving as a consequence of an increase of temperature or of chemical reactions taking place at depth, they may create fracture porosity, and increase the pressure in such a domain of pore spaces. As more fractures are being created, the vertical height of the domain will increase. As soon as the height spanned exceeds the critical value, the rock at the bottom of the domain will crush shut. Such a domain may then be unstable and migrate upwards, driven by the force of buoyancy, much like a bubble of gas in a liquid makes its way up. Only here, in the presence of solid rock, it is not a round bubble but a region of rock with interspaced but connected pore spaces. Just as the bubble would split the liquid above it while the liquid below it would close again, so in this case it will happen with the rock. The rock itself does not move upwards, but the domain of pore spaces with its fluid makes its way up through the rock. Above strongly outgassing regions in the mantle one may have a frequent dispatch of pore space domains towards the surface. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> Another mode of upward flow is also possible. If the generation of fluid is continuous, a set of adjoining, stationary pore space domains may be set up, and the flow may be in the form of a continuous or intermittent leakage from one to the next one above. The stability of such a flow will require that the pressure drop from the top of one domain to the base of the next will occur as a result of the flow through the low permeability of the dividing layer. (Figure 7.) However the flow occurs, it must always adopt a stepwise pressure profile, with domains in which the fluid pressure gradient has almost precisely the static value, given by the density of the fluid, divided from the next domain by a region in which the fluid pressure gradient has a much higher value. (If the mass of fluid is small compared to the mass of rock, as would mostly be the case, then the average pressure gradient over a large vertical interval must be the lithostatic one in both rock and fluid.) Such a flow can be compared with a flow of a river from the mountains, which creates a system of cataracts. Consider the potential energy in the flow: pressure in one case, height in the other. In the case of the river, almost all loss of height occurs at the cataracts, the flow between them being almost quiescent and level. Similarly, in the former case, almost all the drop in pressure would occur not continuously but in a few sharply defined locations. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> If we look at this situation from the surface down we may find a system of connected pore spaces frequently filled with water, and we therefore define a pressure in the pore spaces that is called hydrostatic, and a pressure in the rock, called lithostatic. As the two pressure gradients with depth are dissimilar, a point must be reached where the rock will close. I have referred to this as the "critical layer." Beneath that we can again have open pore spaces, but now only provided that they are filled with a fluid at a pressure exceeding the hydrostatic value that would be calculated for that depth, but not exceeding the lithostatic value. We may then have another domain of fluid-filled pores, but again only of a limited vertical height. The uppermost domain can be calculated to reach down to a depth of between 3 and 5 kilometers in soft rock, but possibly as much as 10 kilometers in hard rock. This is the domain in which most of the oil and gas exploitation has been done so far, but a comparatively small number of cases exist where the drill went through a sharp pressure transition, and where the secomd domain has been tapped. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> It should be emphasized that such a critical layer is a necessity dictated by the finite compressive strength of rock. It is thus a caprock layer which must overlie any region in which outgassing is occurring. As the strength of the rock is of course regionally quite variable, this critical layer may be far from level. It may be of a complex shape with large variations in height, and there may even be locations where it doubles over on itself. The main thing is that it has to be a continuous sheet. This is not to say that there may not be other layers of caprock in an outgassing region where a material of low permeability was laid down, and presumably all shallow gasfields have required the presence of such a caprock. The importance of the critical layer is that an outgassing region will inevitably possess that type of caprock at a sufficiently deep level. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> The critical layer, like other layers of caprock, will not have zero permeability and there will be some leakage through it, as we have discussed. In a long term steady state of a continuous upward flow, the leakage through the critical layer (and through all the similar layers at deeper levels) must occur at the mean supply rate. Nothing can change the flow rate of this upward stream: it is given by the production rate of the fluid below. All that any caprock or any critical layer can do is to increase the amount that is dammed up underneath it. The situation is similar to that of the flow of a river from the mountains to the sea, where, we may suppose, the rainfall producing the water all occurs up in the mountains. On the way down, the river will transport all the water that has been collected; and if the river is dammed up anywhere along its length, the steady state flow rate will not be changed. All that the dam will do is to create a lake on the upstream side of it, but finally the amount of water flowing over the dam will be exactly the same as that which would have flowed without the dam. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> This is an important consideration from a practical point of view. One has observed that over natural gas producing regions the amount of methane and other hydrocarbons in the soil is greatly enhanced, sometimes by a factor of one hundred or more, and any attempts at deducing a flow rate to account for this gives such high rates of methane seepage as to appear incompatible with a supply coming only from a gasfield below. The technique of surface chemical prospecting, such as measuring the soil methane, has been described by some as necessarily in error, since it was not conceivable that the outflow rate could be so high that the gasfield would be exhausted in a few thousand years. But of course if there is a continuous gas supply from below, and at rates that are in no way in conflict with the limits we can place on such outgassing processes, then it will make good sense to observe the surface concentrations of hydrocarbon gases. It would also make good sense to extend this technique and introduce tracer gases in a well at some depth, and observe the time it takes for the tracer gases to appear in the surrounding soil. From this, and the knowledge of the porosity of the ground, an actual flow rate can be established, and so one could evaluate for any region how much methane per day or per year is seeping out. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> Regions that have a high seepage rate will in general be favorable ones for finding good reservoirs, since for a given quality seal or caprock a larger quantity is likely to be dammed up underneath that seal. Surface gas prospecting has been certified over many known gasfields, the outstanding example being the Cement Field of Oklahoma. The technique is yet to be used on a large scale in the search for more gas. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> In several regions of the U.S. drilling to 5 kilometers (15,000 ft.) or deeper has demonstrated the sharp pressure discontinuity to which I have referred. All of the deep gas in the Anadarko Basin is below this discontinuity and there all the deep gas seems to form essentially one reservoir. In Louisiana and neighboring areas of the Gulf Coast, the pressure discontinuity is a little shallower and the continuous sheet represented by it has been carefully mapped (Jones, 1980), with the information available from a large number of wells and the interpolation between them from seismic data. In Oklahoma there is, in some instances, a dramatic increase in the porosity after penetrating the critical layer. Porosities as high as 18 percent have been found below 20,000 feet in the carbonate rocks. It is clearly not possible to account for this by any process of enclosing a rock volume tightly, and then compressing it to achieve the gas pressure in the pores. Since that gas pressure is roughly twice that above the critical layer, one would have to contemplate an initial gas-filled porosity of 36 percent. This is not a value that has ever been seen. The conclusion must be, therefore, that the gas has entered from even higher pressure regions deeper down, and that it has expanded pore spaces to these values. Investigations of the details of the fracture patterns in the rocks confirm such an explanation. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> We may then describe how a flow of hydrocarbons from depth may take place. As we have discussed, a high proportion of saturated compounds would indicate that methane was a major component that dilutes the stream. But at shallow levels where the pressure is low, the heavier hydrocarbon molecules will be shed from the stream. The largest such effect will take place at the flow through the last pressure discontinuity on the way up, the shallowest critical layer. It is there that the oils are likely to be deposited, being now viscous and easily retained, while much or all of the gases can continue upwards and largely escape into the atmosphere. Oil deposits are concentrated laterally because major faults have facilitated their ascent and have caused a confluence towards them; and the oil deposits are concentrated vertically because of the sharp pressure changes in going from one pore-space domain to the next, at which oil and gas get separated.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"><br />
</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="color: blue; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: x-large; font-weight: bold;">Results in Sweden</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br />
</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> The distinction between hydrocarbons derived from biological materials and hydrocarbons of primordial origin would be made most clearly by examining igneous or metamorphic rocks which could not have maintained either hydrocarbons or biogenic materials capable of producing them, before they froze to their present condition. If crude oil, methane and other hydrocarbon gases can be found in such locations, at depths that would exclude a seepage down from above, then this would demonstrate an origin from sources below. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> Crude oil has been found and produced from crystalline and basement rocks in numerous locations, but mostly in places where a transport from neighboring sediments could be invoked as an explanation. The clearest example we have where a production from sedimentary materials can be excluded comes from two deep bore-holes in the granitic rock of central Sweden (Gold, 1991). </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> As we have noted, the granite and gneiss of Sweden has many signs of impregnation with hydrocarbons. Tar is frequently found during tunneling and mining operations as a substance filling cracks in the granite. Methane explosions and prominent shows of methane have been seen frequently. If hydrocarbons come from depth, one might judge that the large granitic block which makes up most of Sweden overlies an area of mantle that is particularly hydrocarbon rich, and one might think that the hydrocarbons of the Norwegian Trench or of the countries surrounding the Baltic signify an outflow from this area of the mantle. Fractures of the rock within Sweden may then have been conduits for hydrocarbons from the same source. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> It is with this consideration in mind that I persuaded the Swedish Government to study the region of a giant meteoritic impact crater, the "Siljan Ring" in Central Sweden. An impact that left a circular formation 44 kilometers in diameter would undoubtedly have fractured the rock to great depth, and one might therefore have expected this to be a particularly favorable location for finding upwelling hydrocarbons. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> It was quickly ascertained that just the area of the Siljan structure was quite anomalously rich in soil methane and other light hydrocarbons, that many ordinary water wells produced copious amounts of gas and that a number of stone quarries in the area had oil seeping out of the rocks and making oil pools in the ground. It is true that the stone quarries were in the sedimentary rock which fills a ring shaped depression, but those sediments are nowhere deeper than 300 meters. Oil seepage generated after 360 million years from such a small quantity of sediments seemed improbable. Aside from the ring shaped depression, the basement rock is very close to the surface in the whole area; there is barely enough soil for the trees to grow both inside and outside the Siljan Ring feature. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> As a result of the clear demonstration that the area was quite anomalous for its hydrocarbon content, it was decided to engage in a major drilling operation. Since 1986 two wells have been drilled: one to a depth of 6.7 kilometers, the other to a depth of 6.5 kilometers. Both holes showed the presence of methane and of other hydrocarbon gases, as well as of crude oil. While in the first hole (Gravberg I) diesel oil was used for a time as a component of the drilling mud, only water-based mud was used in the second hole (Stenberg 1), which is situated in the center of the ring, and is 12 km distant from the ring sediments, and also from Gravberg 1. Although the detailed chemical makeup of the oil found at deep levels in Gravberg was not the same as diesel oil, many considered nevertheless that the diesel drilling oil could be held responsible. Some 15 tons of oil were pumped up, oil that had hydrocarbon components and organo-metallic compounds that are frequently in natural crude oils, but were absent or present only in very much lower abundance in any of the drilling fluids. Some biological molecules, steranes, were found to be from the same set and in closely similar ratios as had been seen in the surface seepage oils (Figure 8 ), and this strengthened the case that the two oils had a common origin. Steranes are thought to derive from sterol, a component of methane-oxidizing bacteria. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br />
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</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiBP9Srr-1svhwa21i-hcjpFQQz7YiAEEBdSe4sbVeEoYmZLq8qmTlb2HjfJ-i-FMdFM6HQnWGhHRifBIStqxlmvwv9mfUBJ89g1LSrzIxB_-Yoy7RY0DYBAP6W9vD7V2R-e_tE/s1600/008.jpg"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><img alt="" border="0" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5559441995509258274" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiBP9Srr-1svhwa21i-hcjpFQQz7YiAEEBdSe4sbVeEoYmZLq8qmTlb2HjfJ-i-FMdFM6HQnWGhHRifBIStqxlmvwv9mfUBJ89g1LSrzIxB_-Yoy7RY0DYBAP6W9vD7V2R-e_tE/s1600/008.jpg" style="display: block; margin-bottom: 10px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; margin-top: 0px; text-align: center;" /></span></a></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br />
</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span style="font-weight: bold;">Figure 8</span>. The four most prominent biomarker molecules, steranes, found in the oils of the Siljan region, Sweden. The steranes are present in similar proportions in surface-seep oil (Solberga quarry), local near-surface oil shale (Tretaspis Shale), and oil in black sludge obtained from 5.6 km depth in Gravberg 1 well. This similarity indicates a common origin of all three oils. The identity of the four sterane molecules is given in the usual notation by the number of carbon atoms and the right or left symmetry of the molecule. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In both holes the hydrocarbon content of the rocks increased with depth and in both holes high spots in methane (and in Gravberg 1 also in heavier hydrocarbons) were in the locations in which volcanic intrusive rock, dolerite, was present (Figure 9). (Heavier hydrocarbons were not measured during drilling in Gravberg 1).</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br />
</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjhSypvNbVx9044bsnGxJ7ezq_AwdkiN_VnGmGSlZf6mM5BcgR1e3A1GaMnLdj6Kls9pAFvUkWJpMFB1VjSrE0WaEa5209_BGN4ocXpFYO1zBNcFO9PVRX7GUw175TS20x8IA37/s1600/009.jpg"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><img alt="" border="0" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5559442145254430018" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjhSypvNbVx9044bsnGxJ7ezq_AwdkiN_VnGmGSlZf6mM5BcgR1e3A1GaMnLdj6Kls9pAFvUkWJpMFB1VjSrE0WaEa5209_BGN4ocXpFYO1zBNcFO9PVRX7GUw175TS20x8IA37/s1600/009.jpg" style="display: block; margin-bottom: 10px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; margin-top: 0px; text-align: center;" /></span></a></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br />
</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span style="font-weight: bold;">Figure 9</span>. Stenberg 1 well, Sweden: Methane content of drill cuttings as function of depth. Presence of intrusive volcanic rock, dolerite, is marked below graph, showing correlation with high spots of methane readings. Heavier hydrocarbons were also measured, and were largely in step with methane. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The carbon isotope ratio of the methane became heavier with increasing depth, and in the dolerite zones and their immediate surroundings it was as heavy as between -12 to -15 per mil in the Gravberg hole, and -7.2 to-7.8 per mil in the Stenberg hole. In both holes the helium concentrations were frequently as high as several percent of the total gas present, and possibly exceeding the highest concentration seen in any well. </span><br />
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</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> The investigations during the drilling of Stenberg I gave the clearest indication that a range of hydrocarbon gases and liquids had indeed entered from deep levels. The content of hydrocarbon gases and liquids (aromatics) in the drilled out rock was carefully measured every five-foot interval during drilling. It showed very large increases in the dolerite and in the granite closely adjoining it (Figure 9). Since the dolerite has undoubtedly intruded from below, one has to conclude that the pathways which guided it up, or the pathways which it generated in the intrusion, are the pathways later used by the hydrocarbons. This relationship also confirms that contaminants introduced during drilling were not responsible for the observed hydrocarbon. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> In both holes large amounts of a magnetite/oil sludge were discovered, the magnetite present as very small grains, mostly submicroscopic and highly concentrated in the sense that it formed more than 95 percent of the mineral content of the sludge. Twelve tons of this substance were pumped up from the Gravberg hole from a depth below 5.2 kilometers. It was suspected that the magnetite had been refined and concentrated by bacterial action, as has been seen in other oil-bearing regions at shallower levels (Sparks and others, 1990). Sample collection of liquids that entered the Gravberg wellbore below 5.2 kilometer depth was carried out by the Swedish State Bacteriological Laboratory in Stockholm and several strains of previously unknown thermophilic and anaerobic microorganisms were cultured from these samples (Szewzyk and others, 1993). </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> During the test procedure of the Stenberg well a gas cylinder was brought up containing free gas that would readily burn. Apart from a nitrogen contamination (due to nitrogen used to expel the drilling water), the gas consisted principally of methane with approximately 10 percent helium and 10 percent hydrogen. No continuous flow could be obtained, apparently due to the blocking effect of the entry of dense magnetite sludge into the wellbore. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> The oil brought up with this sludge was investigated in detail by the Danish Geological Survey and considered to be a biodegraded crude oil. Chromatograms of it matched closely those obtained from the oil pumped up in Gravberg. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">The scientific investigations carried out on products of the two holes have thus demonstrated that hydrocarbons are present deep in granitic rock in the complete absence or proximity of any sedimentary materials and in a distribution that leaves no reasonable doubt that they have come from deeper levels. The mix of the different hydrocarbon molecules, both of the gases and the oils, is quite a typical mix, as it is found in other oil and gas producing regions. The quantities of oil and gas that appear to be present in this 44 km diameter formation, tested in two distant locations, appear to be very large, as judged by the porosity measurements and the vertical intervals showing high concentrations. Production flow rates could not be achieved in either hole, apparently because in a confluent flow towards the wellbore, the sludge quickly concentrates and blocks the pores. The observed concentration of iron oxides in the rock is too low for the magnetite sludge to have been generated in the depth intervals in which it was found, and it must have been gathered and concentrated by a flow. We presume that this flow was that of the oil with which the magnetite is now associated. In that case, deeper levels than those that could be reached by the two boreholes (6.7 and 6.5 km ) would tap into liquids and gases that contain smaller concentrations of magnetite, and would therefore cause less obstruction to a flow.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br />
</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="color: blue; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: x-large; font-weight: bold;">Conclusions</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br />
</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> If the main supply of the commercial quantities of hydrocarbons, both gas and oil, is indeed derived from mantle depths and from materials that were incorporated in the Earth at its formation, then many points in petroleum geology and in other aspects of geology will have to be reconsidered. The quantity and locations of gas and oil that can be found, the method of prospecting for them, and the technology involved will all be affected. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> It was thought previously that gas could only be found where there was a particularly impermeable caprock, tight enough to hold gas, above sediments rich in biological debris. Now one would judge that gas can be found wherever a seepage of gas can be found at the surface, and where there is an adequate porosity at some depth below. If a low permeability layer exists over a porous region, then this may have dammed up the flow sufficiently for production. But at deeper levels the critical layer will in any case provide a caprock. Thus in searching for gas, the requirement of a special caprock and the requirement of biological debris have both disappeared. The porosity requirement may be satisfied in many more locations than was previously thought, since beneath the critical layer the fluids coming from high pressures will frequently have created fracture porosity (as was clearly seen in Oklahoma). </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> If hydrocarbons have been a major source of all the carbon supplied to the surface, then of course the quantities that would be involved are orders of magnitude larger than was previously estimated. The shallow zone above the shallowest critical layer, which is almost everywhere the only zone that has been the subject of oil and gas prospecting, will be seen to be the zone low in hydrocarbons, because they have largely escaped from these shallow levels. Oils, which became concentrated at shallow levels by the escape of the much more abundant gases, have been the chief object of the petroleum explorers. The deeper levels, which must be expected to have maintained the much more abundant gas, have not been explored at all outside of the United States, and in the U.S. the few areas that have been so explored have been found to be very productive. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> Drilling to below 5 or 6 kilometers is still expensive and not much exploration to these levels will be done so long as the good prospects there are not recognized. But despite the expense of drilling, which would no doubt greatly decrease if more of it were done, the productivity from deep levels has frequently shown itself to be very high. Gas at depth below the critical layer tends to have a pressure approaching the lithostatic value, which may be on the order of 2,000 bar. The density is thus hundreds of times higher than it is in shallow wells, and may be as high as half the density of oils; therefore the content of gas in a given volume of pore spaces is hundreds of times greater than in shallow wells. The high pressure differentials into the well bore mean that very high flow rates can be obtained, even from rock which at shallower levels would be regarded as of insufficient permeability for production. The ultimate production from a given well is greater, because a greater pressure gradient drives gas to the wellbore, and the expansion of the gas will allow a large proportion of the initial gas in place to be produced. It is therefore by no means true that gas production from the deep horizons must be expensive, and many examples exist already that show that deep gas production can be quite competitive with shallow gas. The initial investment in an area will be higher, but so will be the returns. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> Because deep gas does not have many of the special requirements for its accumulation that oil has, one may expect it to be in many more locations than oil. Many countries in all parts of the world will benefit from a more widely distributed fuel source. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> Prospecting by the search for surface seepage of gas is a rational procedure, since large quantities of gas must constantly be escaping. Oil was found mainly by the attention that oil seeps drew to an area; gas seeps require instruments to be found, but, with more gas than oil coming up and escaping more readily, gas seeps are good indicators of the presence of gas underneath. The quality of available prospecting methods is a major economic item, especially for the deep horizons where exploratory drilling is expensive. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> A flow of hydrocarbon fluids through the crust will have affected much of its chemical development. The concentration of many types of mineral deposits, especially of metal ores, has not had adequate explanations. The leaching out of particular components from the rocks requires fluids that can dissolve these components, and it requires large pressure differentials to drive these fluids through the pores of a sufficient quantity of rock to gain access to the materials. Hydrocarbons ascending from depth may provide these requirements. They will be present at a high temperature and pressure, where organo-metallic compounds can readily form. Such compounds are largely soluble in hydrocarbons, and may thus be transported upwards by them. These metals may include some that have quite inadequate solubilities to have been transported by aqueous fluids, but that can form organo-metallics. Silver, gold, and the platinum group are in that category, but many others may come under consideration for such processes. It is interesting to note that particularly gold has been found in many locations together with elemental carbon. Vanadium and nickel have shown a strong association with petroleum, both by the presence of compounds in the petroleum, and the deposition in or near oilfields. Several of the elements that would have a high vapor pressure at mantle temperatures have been found associated with hydrocarbons, not only helium but also mercury, and all the halides. A range of new processes will have to be investigated for the understanding of mineralization in the crust, and the search for hydrocarbons may become associated with the search for certain minerals. The microbiology in the ground which is fed by hydrocarbons may have contributed to highly selective processes; just as we saw concentrated magnetite in the boreholes in Sweden, apparently concentrated by microbial action, so perhaps all the large magnetite deposits of Sweden have a similar origin. Judging from the quantities of microbial material that have been identified in hydrocarbon regions (Ourisson and others, 1984), microbial processing may have been of major importance in the evolution of the crust.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br />
</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-weight: bold;">References</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br />
</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Anders, E., Hayatsu, R., and Studier, M. H., 1973. Organic compounds in meteorites. Science 182, p. 781-790. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Beskrovny, N. S. and Tikhomirov, N. I., 1968. Bitumens in the hydrothermal deposits of Transbaykal. In: The genesis of oil and gas; Izdvo Nedra. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Chekaliuk, E. B., 1976. The thermal stability of hydrocarbon systems in geothermodynamic conditions. Degazatsiia Zemli i Geotektonika (P N. Kropotkin, ed.) p. 267-272. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Clemett, S. J., Maechling, C. R., Zare, R. N., Swan, P. D., and Walker, R. M., 1993. Measurement of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon in interplanetary dust particles. Lunar Planetary Science XXIV. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Galimov, E. M., 1969. Isotopic composition of carbon in gases of the crust. International Geology Review, 11 (10), p. 1092-1104. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Galimov, E. M., and Kvenvolden, K. A., 1983. Concentrations and carbon isotopic compositions of CH4 and CO2 in gas from sediments of the Blake Outer Ridge, Deep Sea Drilling Project Leg 76, Initial Report Deep See Drilling Project, 76, p. 403-407. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Gold, T, 1992. The deep, hot biosphere. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 89, p. 6045-6049. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">______1991. Sweden's Siljan Ring well evaluated. Oil and Gas Journal, Jan 14, 1991. p.76-78. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Gold, T., and Held, M., 1987. Helium-nitrogen-methane systematics in natural gases of Texas and Kansas. Journal Petrol. Geol., 10(4), p. 415-424. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Gold, T., and Soter, S., 1984/85. Fluid ascent through the solid lithosphere and its relation to earthquakes. Pageoph, 122, p. 492-530. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Hunt, J. M., 1975. Is there a geochemical depth limit for hydrocarbons? In: Thermal stability of hydrocarbons; Petroleum Engineer, March 1975 p.112 -127. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Jannasch, H. G., 1983. Microbial processes at deep sea hydrothermal vents. Hydrothermal processes at seafloor spreading centers, (Ed. P.A.Rona et. al.) Plenum Press. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Jones, P. H., 1980. Role of geopressure in the hydrocarbon and water system. Problems of petroleum migration. (W. H. Roberts III & R. J. Cordell, eds.) p. 207-216, Amer. Assoc. Petrol. Geol., Tulsa. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Kent, P. E., and Warman, H. R., 1972. An environmental review of the world's richest oil-bearing region - the Middle East. Internat. Geolo. Congr. 24th, Sect. 5, p. 142-152. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Kravtsov, A. I., 1975. Inorganic generation of oil and criteria for exploration for oil and gas. Zakonomern. Obraz. Razmeshchniya Prom. Mestorozhd. Nefti Gaza (G. N. Dolenko, ed.), p. 38-48. Naukova Dumka: Kiev. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Kravtsov, A. I., Ivanov, V. A., Bobrov, V. A., and Kropotova, O. I., 1981. Distribution of gas-oil-bitumen shows in the Yakutian diamond province. Internat. Geol. Rev. 23, p. 1179-1182. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Kravtsov, A. I., Voytov, G. I., Ivanov, V. A., and Kropotova, O. I., 1976. Gases and bitumens in rocks of the Udachnaya pipe. Dokl. Akad. Nauk SSSR, Earth Sci. Sect. 228, p. 231-234. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Kropotkin, P. N., 1985. Degassing of the Earth and the origin of hydrocarbons. Internat. Geol. Rev. 23, p. 1261-1275. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Kropotkin, P. N., and Valaev, B. M., 1976. Development of a theory of deep-seated (inorganic and mixed) origin of hydrocarbons. Goryuchie Iskopaemye: Problemy Geologii i Geokhimii Naftidov i Bituminoznykh Porod (N.B. Vassoevich, ed.), p. 133-144. Akad. Nauk SSR. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">1984. Tectonic control of Earth outgassing and the origin of hydrocarbons. Proc. 27th Internat. Geol. Congr. 13, p. 395-412. VNU Science Press. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Kudryavtsev, N. A. , 1959. Geological proof of the deep origin of petroleum. Trudy Vsesoyuz. Neftyan. Nauch. - Issledovatel. Geologoraz Vedoch. Inst. No. 132, p. 242-262. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Levin, B. Y., 1958. Chemie der Erde, 19, Part 3 (also private communication). </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Lowe, D. C. , Brenninkmeijer, C. A. M. ,Manning, M. R. Sparks, R., and Wallace, G., 1988. Radiocarbon determination of atmospheric methane at Baring Head, New Zealand. Nature 332, p. 522-524. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Makogan, Yu. F., 1988. Gas Hydrate accumulations and Permafrost development. ProceedingsFifth International Conference, (K. Senneset, ed.) p. 95-101. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Melton, C. E., and Giardini, A. A., 1974. The composition and significance of gas released from natural diamonds from Africa and Brazil. Amer. Mineralogist 59 p. 775-782. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Mendeleev, D., 1877. L'origine du petrole. Revue Scientifique, 2e Ser., VIII, p. 409-416. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Morrison, P. , and Pine, J., 1955. Radiogenic origin of helium isotopes in rock. Ann. NY Acad. Sci 62, p. 71-92. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Nikonov, V. F., 1973. Formation of helium-bearing gases and trends in prospecting for them. Internat. Geology Rev. 15, 5, p. 534 et seq. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Ourisson, G., Albrecht, P., and Rohmer, M., 1984. The microbial origin of fossil fuels. Scientific American 251, 2, p. 44-51. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Pearson, D. G., Davies, G. R. , Nixon, P. H. , and Milledge, H. J., 1989. Graphitized diamonds from a peridotite massif in Morocco and implications for anomalous diamond occurrencies. Nature 338, p. 60-62. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Pierce, A. P. , Gott, G. B., and Mytton, J. W., 1964. Uranium and helium in the Panhndle gasfield, Texas, and adjacent areas. US Geol. Suvey. Prof. Paper, p. 454-G. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Porfir'ev, V. B., 1974. Inorganic origin of petroleum. Amer. Assoc. Petrol. Geol. Bull. 58, p. 3-33. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Roberts, A. 1980. Helium emanometry in exploring for hydrocarbons, part II. Proceedings of Symposium II on unconventional methods in exploration for petroleum and natural gas, Institute for the Study of Earth and Man, SMU Press. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Robinson, R., 1963. Duplex origin of petroleum. Nature 199, p. 113-114. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Robinson, R., 1966. The origins of petroleum. Nature 212, p. 1291-295. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Schidlowski, M., Eichmann, R., and Junge, C. E., 1975. Precambrian sedimentary carbonates: carbon and oxygen isotope geochemistry and implications for the terrestrial oxygen budget. Precambrian Research, 2, p. 1-69. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Sokoloff, W., 1889. Kosmischer Ursprung der Bitumina. Bull. Soc. Imp. Natural Moscau, Nouv. Ser.. 3, p. 720-739. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Sparks, H. N. C., Mann, S., Bazylinski, D. A., Lovley, D. R., Jannasch, H. W., and Frankel, R.B., 1990. Structure and morphology of magnetite anaerobically-produced by a marine magnetotactic bacterium and a dissimilatory iron-reducing bacterium. Earth and planetary science letters, 98 p. 14-22. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Sylvester-Bradley, P. C., 1964. The origin of oil and life. Discovery 25, p. 37-42. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Sylvester-Bradley, P. C., 1972. The geology of juvenile carbon. Exobiology (C.Ponnamperuma, ed.), pp. 62-94. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Szewzyk, U., Szewzyk, R., and Stenström, T-A., 1993, Thermophilic, anaerobic bacteria isolated from a deep borehole. In preparation for Proc.Nat.Acad.Sci., and private communication. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Vernadksky, V. I., 1933. The history of minerals of the Earth's crust, Vol. 2, Pt. I (inRussian). Moscow-Leningrad. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Yayanos, A. A., 1986. Evolutional and ecological implications of the properties of deep-sea barophilic bacteria. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 83, p. 9542-9546. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Further reading: Gold, T. Power from the Earth: Deep Earth Gas - Energy for the Future. Published by J. M. Dent & Sons, Ltd., London, 1987 (US distributer: The Bookery, 215 N. Cayuga Street, Ithaca, NY 14850) </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br />
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</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-weight: bold;"><span style="color: red; font-size: x-large;">Can There Be Two Independent Sources of Commercial Hydrocarbon Deposits, One Derived from Biological Materials, the Other from Primordial Carbon and Hydrogen, Incorporated into the Earth at its Formation?</span><br />
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</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: x-large;"><b>Thomas Gold</b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">November 1996 </span></b></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> In any discussion of the ultimate origin of hydrocarbons (oil and natural gas) that are commercially extracted, this is a major question: are there two pathways for generating these deposits, or is there evidence that there is only one? If it can be shown that there is only one, then a proof of the derivation of any one hydrocarbon deposit would constitute a proof that this represents the derivation of all. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> The two pathways that are under discussion are a derivation from biological materials deposited in the sediments, or a derivation from carbonaceous materials incorporated into the Earth at its formation. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> For the biological origin we have the evidence of the (unquestionably) biological origin of some sets of molecules found in all commercial oils. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> For the second, the primordial origin of commercial hydrocarbons, we have the comparison with the abundance of similar hydrocarbons on many other planetary bodies, also in interplanetary grains, in comets, and also in the interstellar gas clouds thought to be similar to the cloud that formed the solar system. We also see abundance of methane in the volcanic ocean vents where there are no substantial biological sediments. Furthermore the common association of hydrocarbons with the inert gas helium has no explanation in a formation process from biological materials, but is readily understood as a consequence of the sweeping up of the trace gases by hydrocarbon fluids, if those have migrated up from a deep level, far below the sedimentary blanket. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> The evidence for a biological origin, given by the presence of biological molecules in all oils, can be explained not only by a biological origin of the oils themselves, but equally well or better by a contamination with microbial materials in all oil wells. Microbial life at depth in the rocks was predicted on the basis that it would account for the biological molecules in oils, and such life has now been found to be widespread. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> It has often been suggested that both modes of derivation may have occurred. There have been suggestions that the two different modes can be identified, and it has been said that "most" commercial oil and gas have come from biological materials, though there is some oil and gas, though commercially insignificant, that derived from deep sources in the mantle. Are there common features in all commercial crude oils that would rule out the dual origin theories? </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> The similarity of all commercial crude oils encompasses the following factors: </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">1.) Nickel and vanadium porphyrins are found in varying proportions, but in all petroleum deposits. Porphyrin molecules are complex molecules made up of carbon, hydrogen and nitrogen, together with a metal atom. Their presence in petroleum has been attributed to chlorophyll from photosynthesizing plants, and to the haem of the blood of animals, and both these will indeed produce porphyrin molecules. But those would contain the metal atoms of magnesium and iron. However no single case is known of magnesium or iron porphyrins having been found in petroleum anywhere. An explanation that on every occasion in all oils the original metal atoms had been exchanged for just nickel and vanadium from the rocks in their surroundings, seems extremely improbable. No explanation has been offered how plant debris would have produced the nickel and vanadium molecules, while, in the other explanation, nickel and vanadium complexes may well be expected, since these two metals are particularly prone to make organometallic compounds. This find therefore favors a deep origin, and at the same time a common origin for all oils. </span><br />
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</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">2.) The heavier hydrocarbon molecules have a large variety of isomers (molecules of the same number of hydrogen and carbon atoms, but assembled in different geometrical configurations). The distribution of isomers of aromatic hydrocarbons has been demonstrated to depend upon the temperature range of their formation. Studies of the isomers of 322 oils from various oil fields of the world, have shown that they have a common set of isomers, a set that has been demonstrated to come from a formation temperature of between 700 and 1,100 °C. There is no significant difference in this range between oils coming from different tectonic settings. The overall hydrocarbon composition corresponds to the equilibrium state at temperatures 1,300 to 1,500 °C and pressures of 20 to 40 kb. The estimate is that this is the condition in the upper mantle at depths of 60 to 160 km. Temperatures and pressures in the sedimentary blanket are certainly far from the conditions necessary to account for the isomeric composition characteristic of all natural oils. (This information comes primarily from the publications of two chemists and thermodynamicists from the Ukraine, G.E. Boiko and E.B. Chekaliuk, over the years from 1950 to 1982. Although there is much reference to these publications in the Soviet scientific literature, and I have referred to them in my publications, I have found no other reference to these in the U.S., British, German or French literature.) This universal property of oils thus makes it extremely unlikely that two completely different modes of formation could have been responsible for such complex but similar products; at the same time the temperature range indicated is far too high for a sedimentary origin. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">The depth range indicated is also that of the derivation of diamonds, whose formation required the presence of unoxidized carbon under a pressure in excess of 30 kb. Violent gas-driven eruptions from upper mantle depths were required to deliver the diamonds and other deep source materials to the surface. </span><br />
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</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">3.) The common association of hydrocarbons with helium has no explanation in a biological origin theory; in a theory involving the ascent of hydrocarbons from deep levels, the physical process of sweeping up the gases in the pores of the rock, would be expected; and helium is a significant component of those. This also points to a derivation of the majority of oils from deep levels. </span><br />
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</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">4.) The arguments of Robert Robinson still stand, that any biological debris would be quite unlikely to produce hydrogen-saturated hydrocarbons. The hydrogen/carbon ratio of biological materials is too low in the first place, and slow chemical processing in geologic settings would lead to a further loss of hydrogen. Yet most commercial hydrocarbon deposits contain methane and other high hydrogen components. The average hydrogen proportion is greater, the deeper the level from which the hydrocarbons are withdrawn, corresponding to a hydrogen loss during the upward migration of the fluids. </span><br />
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</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> The overall conclusion is therefore that natural petroleum has detailed chemical features that are common to all, and that we must therefore consider that all derived from the same process. Moreover, most oils bear clear evidence of having had a deep origin, and a high temperature of formation. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br />
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</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large; font-weight: bold;">Excerpts from the paper by P.N. Kropotkin, entitled "On the History of Science: Professor N.A. Kudryatsev (1893-1971) and the Development of the Theory of Origin of Oil and Gas"</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br />
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</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> Presented at a conference in Moscow in 1995, honoring Professor Kudryatsev's contributions to the field. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> In the theory of an organic origin of petroleum it was considered that oil is formed in deposits rich in biogenic organic matter, the so-called "source rocks", at temperatures not exceeding 300 to 500 °C. A decisive fact against this theory came from the determination of the temperature of formation of oil from quantitative relations of isomers of identical chemical composition. Such studies were performed by G.E. Boiko, who considered the relations for the best studied isomers from 322 oils from various oil fields of the world, and the results of these analyses were published between 1950 to 1975. The relations for these isomers in the hydrocarbon system depend mainly on temperature. The results obtained have shown that in all oils of the world, the isomers of aromatic hydrocarbons are in relative proportions corresponding to the equilibrium at the temperature of approximately 1000 to 1400 °K. Oils of geosyncline and platform areas do not differ significantly in the temperatures corresponding to this equilibrium composition. The thermodynamic calculations of the complete hydrocarbon composition of oils has shown that it is the equilibrium state at temperatures of 1600 to 1800 °K and pressures of 2 to 4 x 103 MPa (Boiko, 1982). Based on experimental data and thermodynamic computations, G.E. Boiko came to the conclusion that the synthesis of oil takes place in the upper mantle at depths of 40-160 kilometers. In any case it could not be synthesized within the sedimentary blanket where temperatures and pressures certainly do not correspond to the isomeric relations characteristic of all oils. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> A.S. Eigenson underscores the inconsistency of the argumentation for the biogenic origin of oils based on the presence in them of so-called molecular fossils. Hunt considers as a typical molecular fossil the porphyrins that are a closed bridge structure of four pyrol rings which can readily produce complexes (Eigenson, 1990). Such derivatives of porphyrin as a magnesium complex are contained in chlorophyll of green plants and as complexes of valence two iron are contained in hemoglobin and cytochrome. But many items regarding this assumed molecular fossil remain unconsidered. First of all, in no oils even traces of iron and magnesium complexes have been found, but only vanadium and nickel ones. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> The discovery of oil, deep in the Baltic Shield, may be considered a decisive factor in the hundred year old debate about the biogenic or abiogenic origin of oil. This discovery was made in deep wells that were drilled in the central part of the crystalline Baltic Shield, on the initiative of T. Gold.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br />
</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large; font-weight: bold;">References</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br />
</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Boiko, G.E. Prognosis of the presence of oil and gas from genetic indices. Kiev, 1982. 252 pp. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Eigenson, A.S. On quantitative study of formation of technogenic and natural hydrocarbon systems using methods of mathematical modelling. Khimiya i tekhnologiya Topliv i Masel. 1990, No 9, pp. 3-8, No 12, pp. 19-254; 1991, No 5, pp. 1-26. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">See complete text, with introduction by T. Gold, in Earth Sciences History (Fall 1997). Publ: History of Earth Sciences Society, Troy, New York. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br />
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</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="color: red; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: x-large; font-weight: bold;">Depth Effects of Petroleum</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">Thomas Gold</span></b></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">September 1996</span></b></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: x-large;"><br />
</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="color: blue; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: x-large; font-weight: bold;">"Chirality" or Mirror Symmetry of Oils</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br />
</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> The word "chirality" refers to the type of symmetry that the left hand has to the right hand. It can also be expressed as a mirror symmetry and an object possessing chirality will not be identical with its mirror image, instead it will have the sense of the chirality reversed. Two dimensional objects cannot possess chirality since looking at them from one side will make them identical with their mirror images seen from the other side. Three dimensions are necessary before chiral symmetry can come into play. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> Molecules that are composed of four or more atoms may possess chirality, meaning that the same arrangements of the positions of the components of the molecule can be achieved in two different ways, one being the precise mirror image of the other. In chemistry this is important, since any given chiral molecule will act differently depending on the chirality of the partner in a reaction. However, the overall rule applies strictly: if you were to replace each molecule in a chemical system with one of the opposite chirality, then all the reactions would proceed exactly the same way. In other words chemical reactions do not favor one chirality over another. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> A right-handed screw remains a right-handed screw from which ever side you look at it. Its mirror image is a left-handed screw. Complex molecules can exist in the two forms, one looking like the mirror image of the other. If they are in a liquid, tumbling around arbitrarily, they will still affect light traveling through the liquid and in fact plane polarized light may have the axis of its polarization rotated by the action of these molecules. If the right-handed and the left handed molecules are equally represented, there will be no net effect. However, if one type predominates over the other, then there will be an effect, which is in practice often readily observable. It is in liquids that this type of observation is important, because there is no long-range effect that would cause many of one kind to dominate over the optical path. A liquid containing equal numbers of each (to within the statistical expectation, if they had the same probability of being generated) would then be referred to as "racemic." A non-racemic liquid then requires an explanation for the preference of one sense of chirality over the other. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> In biology, this is provided by saying that all these molecules were built up in a system that traces back to the very beginning of biology, and in all the evolution it has not changed the chirality on which it hit (with a 50/50 chance) in the first place. This may be the right explanation, but some people have doubted that this effect would really have prevented all digressions. It is clear, however, that on the Earth all amino acids that make up the proteins, rotate light in the left-handed sense. In principle we could suppose that some other planet had the same life forms as we have here, with everything working in just the same way, but in which all the amino acids were right-handed, and the opposite handedness to ours here applied also to each of the other complex molecules with which they may interact. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br />
</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjt1qx4DPxJtpwd422DVbY4ibIkwZb09R8Cte2ygcGM8xe1CD8SzU8ACL_P0V6i-QiRtlUIiPn2ABYPHeftNMtjTHRE99ajiOzVBg3gjg0kFK7C6xB11X9PVtgfzTbljMUKSeCx/s1600/11.jpg"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><img alt="" border="0" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5559442302950587042" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjt1qx4DPxJtpwd422DVbY4ibIkwZb09R8Cte2ygcGM8xe1CD8SzU8ACL_P0V6i-QiRtlUIiPn2ABYPHeftNMtjTHRE99ajiOzVBg3gjg0kFK7C6xB11X9PVtgfzTbljMUKSeCx/s1600/11.jpg" style="display: block; margin-bottom: 10px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; margin-top: 0px; text-align: center;" /></span></a></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br />
</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span style="font-weight: bold;">Figure 1</span> shows the rotation of plane polarized light passing through the oil. Different components of the oil as selected by the temperature at which they boil (boiling point fractions) show either a right-handed or a left-handed rotation. At deeper levels in the same petroleum bearing area, these effects are totally absent. </span><br />
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</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> Non-racemic mixtures of chiral molecules occur naturally on Earth only in relation to biological activity. Figure 1, above (and many others like it that exist), show that oils acquire a non-racemic nature as they get from deep to shallower levels. I ascribe this to the presence of bacterial activity, which introduces a variety of non-racemic substances. It is only the amino acids that are all left-handers here, but the bacteria produce many other substances also, each of which will be a non-racemic mix, right-handed or left-handed. It is for this reason that the graph shows some components of the oil causing a left-handed rotation of the light, while other components show a right-handed one. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> At deeper and hotter levels, these effects have completely disappeared, and I presume that this is due to the temperature there being too high for the particular set of microorganisms that produce the non-racemic additions. There may be many other microorganisms that can withstand higher temperatures, and they may be plentiful at the deeper levels, but they may be types that do not deliver significant amounts of chiral molecules to the fluid. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> Sir Robert Robinson, who investigated the chemistry of natural petroleum in some detail, noted that the deeper one goes, the fewer are the signs of anything biological in the oil. This is clearly a case in point, but there are several others. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> The complete absence of any optical rotation at the deeper levels is itself a strong argument against a biological derivation of the oil. If any oil could be generated from plant and animal debris, it would be very unlikely to be so accurately racemic; nor can one think that initially non-racemic oil lost this property by being exposed to a higher temperature for a long time. The boiling point fractions that show chirality go up to 240 °C and some even to 320 °C. It is clear that these temperatures have not destroyed the chiral molecules, even though they are temperatures much higher than those at the deep levels from which strictly racemic oil is extracted. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> The presence of non-racemic oil has in the past been taken to prove a biological origin of the oil. Now when one sees to high accuracy the absence of such effects at deeper levels, the argument is reversed. The origin of oil must be strictly racemic, and it is only contamination by certain types of microbes, that can live only at the shallower and cooler levels, that has made the oil non-racemic. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> It should be noted that different sources of natural petroleum all show a preference for one or other chirality at shallower levels, but in detail the sign and magnitude of effects are different. One has to presume that this represents differences in the microbial activity.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br />
</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="color: blue; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: x-large; font-weight: bold;">Carbon Isotope Ratio Depending on Depth</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br />
</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> Similar indications concerning microbial life in oil are given by the distribution of the ratio of the two stable isotopes of carbon, carbon-12 and Carbon-13, dependent on the depth from which the oil was obtained, as shown in Figure 2. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br />
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</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEghlm_FkXgSUDPQvo-fHMDRLQz6ZtW3xQffDRTNjwX9KCSHWYqeZLfQ-wFge185h20YJCD4Uz6TqdRdupPp5HqllvzCUIZXFN1y13b7VRGJxcBCD5O8X1aypAjaEf4gaYar4Won/s1600/12.jpg"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><img alt="" border="0" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5559442419115237762" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEghlm_FkXgSUDPQvo-fHMDRLQz6ZtW3xQffDRTNjwX9KCSHWYqeZLfQ-wFge185h20YJCD4Uz6TqdRdupPp5HqllvzCUIZXFN1y13b7VRGJxcBCD5O8X1aypAjaEf4gaYar4Won/s1600/12.jpg" style="display: block; margin-bottom: 10px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; margin-top: 0px; text-align: center;" /></span></a></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br />
</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span style="font-weight: bold;">Figure 2</span>, "The Galimov Curve." The carbon isotope ratio as a function of depth from the surface is shown for many different locations and in a variety of containment rocks. The ratio follows a similar pattern indicating that a fractionation process is occurring and that this process is most effective at the shallowest levels. </span><br />
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</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> The isotope ratio is given in parts per thousand from a norm (pdb) negative values representing a depletion of the heavy isotope (Galimov, 1969). </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> The Russian carbon-isotope investigator Galimov has assembled many measurements of the carbon isotope ratios in oils from different levels. A clear depth dependence emerges, quite independent of the nature of the containment rocks or their ages, and, as we shall see, a depth-dependent microbial alteration must be invoked. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> If methane is diffusing upwards through the ground as one would expect, then the diffusion speeds of the methane with the heavier carbon atom will be a little slower than that of the lighter one. The comparison of the molecular weight would be 16 to 17. Diffusion speeds will be changed quite markedly, in fact by approximately three percent. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> If we were to simulate the diffusion effects that would be present in nature, we might, for example, take a vertical glass tube and fill it with very fine sand. If we connected a source of methane of a certain ratio of its carbon isotopes to the bottom of that tube, then we would expect that after turning on the supply, we would first see the lighter methane arrive at the top. If we leave the system running, then the heavier molecules will also make their way up through it, and eventually a steady condition will be reached in which just as many of the two types of molecules will emerge on top per unit time, as were in the mix that was fed in at the bottom. There would be no selection effect according to the molecular weight. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> If we were to look in detail how this could happen, we would find that at the bottom of the tube, the heavier molecule will become progressively enriched in this flow, until this enrichment will just compensate for the lower diffusion speed. This means that if we were to take out a certain amount of the mixed gas from the lower levels, (for example by a tube out of the side of the column) in a way that does not select in favor of either isotope, we would be taking out a mix enriched in the heavy isotope, and therefore the gas that is left to stream up the column will show a depletion of the heavy isotope. But at levels above that from which we removed some gas, the same process will occur, only now it will start with a lower ratio of the heavy to the light isotope. Some way up in the diffusion column, we could again take some gas away with the result that the gas entering the next higher section would be further depleted in the heavy isotope. We could set all this up in such a way that at each removal point gas is taken out at a steady rate, and a steady flow pattern will result. Now the output of gas at the top will have a different isotopic ratio from that which was put in at the bottom. The number of stages in this process can be arbitrarily large, and the isotopic selection (called "fractionation") can also be made arbitrarily large. Only the larger we make the number of stages, the more gas will have been withdrawn, and the quantity of gas which arrives at the top of the column per unit time will diminish. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> How can this apply to the diffusion of methane from depth towards the surface of the Earth? Upward diffusion would certainly occur; but what are the side channels of this diffusion column that take away the components that have become enriched in the heavy isotope? </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> There may well be several mechanisms that take away non selectivity some gas from various levels in the natural diffusion column. The most evident mechanism is the conversion of methane to CO2, with oxygen available from the rocks. This process occurs mainly by bacterial action that can reduce sulfates and highly oxidized iron and use the oxygen so gained to turn methane into CO2 and water, or it may use atmospheric oxygen at shallow levels where this is available in groundwater. The CO2 may either emerge on the surface, bringing up an excess of the heavy carbon isotope, or it may form carbonates by combining with calcium or magnesium oxides. Results of both these processes have been observed. Carbonate pore filling cements are frequently seen in hydrocarbon areas, as is also the emission of CO2 at the surface. On this basis, the CO2 derived from any particular level in the diffusion column will contain a higher proportion of the heavier isotope than the gas continuing up in the column. The CO2 molecule is too heavy (molecular mass 44 or 45) to suffer significant fractionation, and what emerges at the top will contain the isotopic mix derived from various levels in the methane column from which it originated. All the time as some methane is taken over to CO2, the remaining methane in the column above will have a greater deficiency of the heavy isotope. The next step of removal will thus start with a greater deficiency of the heavy isotope, and the CO2 produced higher in the column will reflect that. A part of the carbon isotope ratios as a function of depth should therefore show the carbon-13 deficiency in the methane increasing with height in the column, and at each level, the CO2 will also become depleted in the heavy isotope, but at each level it will show less depletion than the methane. This has been seen in several locations, and Figure 3 gives a particularly accurate observation of the effect. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br />
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</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjPsoyOWN3UdEV0FnLQeeeWzgpAsJHw1ZuaP_R8ThwF-Ss5u-vYW0PVE4wvlg-xSQAAkdKMs6YWzQF-j1jDlxcl4c8VXsBbjymPr9Jo9pgwEkZsLS7bqlLZjTB-fV_aD0-aBmw2/s1600/13.jpg"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><img alt="" border="0" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5559442559131269954" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjPsoyOWN3UdEV0FnLQeeeWzgpAsJHw1ZuaP_R8ThwF-Ss5u-vYW0PVE4wvlg-xSQAAkdKMs6YWzQF-j1jDlxcl4c8VXsBbjymPr9Jo9pgwEkZsLS7bqlLZjTB-fV_aD0-aBmw2/s1600/13.jpg" style="display: block; margin-bottom: 10px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; margin-top: 0px; text-align: center;" /></span></a></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br />
</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span style="font-weight: bold;">Figure 3</span> shows isotope measurements in the same vertical column in methane and of co-existing CO2. Both components are progressively depleted from deep to shallower levels. The CO2 tracking the methane quite accurately but with the methane depleted in the heavy isotope by some 40 points per thousand (from Galimov et al., 1983). </span><br />
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</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> The Galimov Curve indicates a more rapid fractionation, the shallower the level of the measurement. This can be ascribed to atmospheric oxygen carried in the groundwater, that allows a more rapid oxidation of methane by bacterial action. Since the CO2 cannot suffer significant fractionation, it is clear that its carbon must have derived from the methane. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> It used to be assumed that fractionation depleting the heavy isotope occurred mainly or only by the preferential absorption of the light isotope of surface plants, and that the greater depletion seen in methane than in CO2 certified that the methane had derived from buried biological materials. But if that had been the relevant fractionation mechanism without the diffusive separation discussed here, then there should be no change with depth in the column, nor could one expect the parallel tracking seen in Figure 3. A fractionation by plants favoring the light isotope is certainly commonly seen, but plants do not have any way of selecting in favor of one isotope except by the difference in speed of diffusion processes through membranes. The process discussed here can and evidently does produce a much greater degree of fractionation than occurs in the carbon uptake of plants (a deviation of nearly 90 parts per thousand from a standard norm, compared with plants that generally fractionate 20 to 30 parts per thousand).</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br />
</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large; font-weight: bold;">References</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br />
</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Galimov, E.M. (1969) Isotopic composition of carbon in gases of the crust. Internat. Geology Rev. v. 11, no 10, 1092-1104. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Galimov, E.M and Kvenvolden, K.A. (1983) Concentrations and carbon isotopic compositions of CH4 and CO2 in gas from sediments of the Blake Outer Ridge, Deep Sea Drilling Project Leg 76: Initial Reports of the Deep Sea Drilling Project, v. 76, p. 403-407. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br />
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</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-large;"><b><span style="color: red;">On the Association of Petroleum with Helium and with Biological Molecules</span></b></span><span style="font-weight: bold;"><br />
</span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">Thomas Gold</span></b></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">July 1992 </span></b></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> The regional and local association of terrestrial natural petroleum with helium has been clearly verified in thousands of locations. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> So has the association of petroleum with specifically biological molecules. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> An origin of petroleum from sedimentary biological materials could not account for the helium association, as no chemical interaction exists that would cause biological materials to concentrate the noble gas. But equally, the association of petroleum with biological molecules ("biomarkers") cannot be doubted, and has been explained as arising from the origin of hydrocarbons from biological deposits. This creates a paradox. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> The only circumstance I could see that would account for the hydrocarbon-helium association, was that the hydrocarbons have ascended from deep levels far below any sediments, from materials similar to those of carbonaceous chondrite meteorites, which were a major component of the materials that formed the Earth. After all, we know that hydrocarbons of non-biological origin are common on many other planetary bodies, and must have had such a derivation there. At the high temperatures and pressures to which these materials will be subjected at depth, some components will be liquefied and, being less dense than the rocks, buoyancy forces will drive them upwards. On the long pathways of their ascent they will wash up any trace gases in the rocks, helium being a major component among these. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> With this explanation for the helium association, the presence of biological molecules in all oils could no longer be regarded as due to an origin in biological debris. The association with biological molecules would have to be due to the existence of a truly gigantic quantity of subterranean micro-biological life, which had been so pervasive that it had produced the biological components seen in all oils. This would be in accord with the opinion of the chemist Sir Robert Robinson: </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> Actually it cannot be too strongly emphasized that petroleum does not present the composition picture expected from modified biogenic products, and all the arguments from the constituents of ancient oils fit equally well, or better, with the conception of a primordial hydrocarbon mixture to which bio-products have been added. (1963) </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> These considerations prompted me to write the paper: "THE DEEP, HOT BIOSPHERE", (Proc Nat. Ac. Sci. July 1992). In this I suggested that sub-surface microbiology is so widespread that every oil-bearing region has been subjected to biological alteration, down to the deepest wells from which oils have been extracted. The microbial life forms involved must then be hyperthermophilic, living at temperatures up to 120°C, possibly as much as 150°C. The quantities in terms of mass or volume would be comparable with all the surface life we know. This would solve the sharp paradox that had split petroleum geology into two camps, and had stymied progress of the discussion of the origin of petroleum for many decades. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br />
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<span style="color: red; font-size: x-large;">Earthquakes, Gases, and Earthquake Prediction</span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"><b>Thomas Gold</b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">1994 </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> Many reports about earthquakes have suggested that the escape of gases was a major effect, both before, during and after the quakes. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> The modern theory has it that some subterranean forces, of unknown origin, gradually build up strains in the crustal rocks, up to the breaking point. The earthquake is then supposed to denote the moment of fracture of that rock. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">Many features of earthquakes seem to have no explanation in this theory. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> Why would there be many occasions of multiple large quakes over a period of a few days to months? Would the rock not break in all the locations in which it is already stressed to near breaking point, at the time it is violently shaken? Why would the ground shake sometimes for periods longer than a minute? Why would quakes cause tsunamis, the massive ocean waves? A brief tremor, however fierce, would not have such an effect. Perhaps the modern earthquake research had omitted the consideration of effects due to the sudden movements and the rapid large changes of volume that gases may cause. We shall therefore discuss the huge eruptions that have brought up diamonds, and we might well ask whether there may not be smaller ones much more frequently. Are they the initiating events for earthquakes as well as for volcanic eruptions? </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> Eye-witness accounts strongly suggest that gas eruptions are the initiating events, but in modern times not much attention is paid to such information, because it is considered too uncertain. Instead the effects that can be measured with accuracy, such as a gradual increase of the strains in rocks and the relation of this to earthquakes, has now become the main subject of research in this field in the US. The overriding importance of this research would lie in finding a method for the prediction of earthquakes, but no such method has so far been found. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> One city has been successfully evacuated two hours before a massive earthquake, and thereby probably many thousands of lives were saved. This was the city of Haicheng in China, in February of 1975. That prediction was based almost entirely on gas-related phenomena. (See the description in "Eye-witness Accounts of Several Major Earthquakes," this Web site.) </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> In the modern geological literature the movement of gases in the crust is rarely considered. Perhaps this is still due to the widespread misconception that no pore-spaces could exist deeper than about 10 km. Even when a most violent volcanic gas explosion has occurred, this is often discussed as due to gases that have come out of solution as the lava is exposed to lower pressure. Why would one not consider that a massive bubble of gas had entered the lava channel and raced to the top? </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> Diamonds, a very pure form of carbon, tell us quite a detailed story about the physical and chemical conditions in the earth, below about 150 km, and this information bears on the origin of petroleum. Chemical theory and the experience in making artificial diamonds, show that high pressures of the order of 45 kilobars are needed to produce this dense crystal. Such pressures are found in the Earth only at a depth of 150 kilometers or more, and it is somewhere at such depths that natural diamonds must have been formed. The temperature there exceeds 1000°C. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> The geologic situation in which diamonds occur shows that unusual gigantic eruptions were involved. Although many diamonds are found dispersed in river gravels, the only concentrated deposits are in the rare "pseudovolcanic" structures called "kimberlite pipes." These are deep, vertical shafts, usually filled with a mixture of rock types, including the diamond-bearing rock called kimberlite (Figure 1). Most of the known kimberlite pipes are in South Africa and Siberia, but there are some in North America, in Australia, and probably also in Brazil, where they may be well hidden under younger sediments. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br />
</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg3BCbVD3fBoa3hiPPSX21klDdMCxa0Ck8R2ZBImMabbEiACFkMGmXTcSUIJvOZ8IkOklAYvT4x-QL9tqbD72jH1IT8zYEHslZFAoqMCqt-wGPPbv1UHQ2KTJLIRkmH-4-7exEc/s1600/14.jpg"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><img alt="" border="0" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5559442727321642386" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg3BCbVD3fBoa3hiPPSX21klDdMCxa0Ck8R2ZBImMabbEiACFkMGmXTcSUIJvOZ8IkOklAYvT4x-QL9tqbD72jH1IT8zYEHslZFAoqMCqt-wGPPbv1UHQ2KTJLIRkmH-4-7exEc/s1600/14.jpg" style="display: block; margin-bottom: 10px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; margin-top: 0px; text-align: center;" /></span></a></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br />
</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span style="font-weight: bold;">Figure 1</span>. Model of a Kimberlite pipe (from K.G. Cox, 1978).</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The model is based on several South African pipes which have been exposed at various levels by erosion, not only on the one near the town of Kimberley, which gave this formation its name. The model was devised by J.B. Hawthorne of DeBeers Consolidated Mines, Ltd. </span><br />
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</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> "The diamond pipes serve as a window that gives us a look into the Earth. There is probably no other group of rocks that originated from even remotely as great a depth as have these" (Kennedy and Nordly, 1968). </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> The pressure and temperature at a depth of 150 or 200 kilometers are in the right range for carbon to crystallize as diamond. But how did the carbon become concentrated? We cannot reasonably suppose that concentrations of large pieces of pure carbon were formed in the outer mantle by the diffusion through the rock of the dispersed individual carbon atoms. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> Minerals of high purity are usually formed in the Earth by a process that involves the flow of some liquid through cracks and pore spaces in the rock. In some particular circumstance of pressure, temperature or chemical surroundings, a component of such a fluid precipitates, and thus builds up a concentrated deposit in the pore spaces. We then have to suppose that a fluid containing carbon, percolated through rock spaces and precipitated concentrated carbon. Veins of diamond would then be built up in these pore spaces, and a later eruption might bring fragments to the surface. What are the fluids that could be responsible for precipitating and concentrating the carbon? </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> The mere existence of the diamonds at these depths proves that unoxidized carbon exists there. The two types of fluids that one may consider for the concentration process would be carbon dioxide and methane, the latter possibly associated with heavier hydrocarbon molecules also. Tiny pore spaces in diamonds have been analyzed and found to contain small amounts of highly compressed gases, among which the carbon-containing ones were both carbon dioxide and methane (Melton and Giardini, 1974). It is clear, therefore, that not only unoxidized carbon, namely the diamond itself, but also methane, can exist down there. Thermodynamic calculations have shown that both these gases are stable in the upper mantle at diamond forming depth, and either could be responsible. The following indications would seem to favor methane. Methane is generally much more abundant in the crust than CO2, and appears to be streaming up from deeper levels. Secondly, of the gases contained in diamonds, nitrogen is by far the most abundant. One has to judge that nitrogen had something to do with the deposition of the diamond. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> It follows that pore spaces in which fluids can flow exist at these depths, and that mineralization processes, leading to great concentrations of certain substances, can be active there, just as they are at shallower levels. Fluid pressures equaling the rock pressures seem to be widespread, at least in the crust and outer mantle, and this is a matter of great significance, both for the chemical processes and for the methods of ascent of fluids to the surface. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> The existence of the kimberlite pipes shows that high concentrations of gas can build up, and have been building up, and these concentrations can explode a hole through 150 kilometers of overlying dense rock. Quite large bubbles of high-pressure gas must have been assembled to do this, and only an inhomogeneous mantle containing volatile-rich materials could be responsible. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> A gas eruption, rather than a volcanic transport to the surface, is required to maintain the diamonds. The stable form of carbon at low pressures is graphite, but if diamonds are cooled sufficiently rapidly as they are brought to lower pressures, they are maintained as unstable but super-cooled crystals. At surface temperatures, they are then effectively stable. We see that the evidence from the diamonds is very simple and clear. Unoxidized carbon can and does exist in the outer mantle. It can be brought up without becoming oxidized; it is associated with a variety of hydrocarbon molecules, both within inclusions in diamond and also in other materials brought up in the eruptions. Volatile-rich regions exist in the mantle, so that high pressure gas bubbles become assembled there that can force their way violently through all the overlying rocks. This clearly shows that the Earth has an unmixed, inhomogeneous mantle, and that there is a high concentration of carbonaceous material in many areas of the globe. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> I am presenting here a selection of eye-witness accounts of major quakes, showing that gases, and in particular combustible gases are frequently in evidence.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br />
</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large; font-weight: bold;">The great earthquake series in New Madrid (Mid Mississippi) in 1811 - 1812</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br />
</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> The report by contains the following items: </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> On the 16th day of December, 1811, at two o'clock in the morning, the inhabitants of New Madrid were aroused from their slumbers by a deep rumbling noise like many thunders in the distance, accompanied with a violent vibratory or oscillating movement of the earth from the southwest to the northeast, so violent at times that men, women, and children caught hold of the nearest objects to prevent falling to the ground. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> It was dangerous to stay in their dwellings, for fear they might fall and bury them in their ruins; it was dangerous to be out in the open air, for large trees would be breaking off their tops by the violence of the shocks, and continually falling to the earth, or the earth itself opening in dark, yawning chasms, or fissures, and belching forth muddy water, large lumps of blue clay, coal, and sand, and when the violence of the shocks were over, moaned and slept, again gathering power for a more violent commotion. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> On this day twenty-eight distinct shocks were counted, all coming from the southwest and passing to the northeast, while the fissures would run in an opposite direction, or from the northwest to the southeast. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> On a small river called the Pemiseo at that time stood a mill owned by a Mr. Riddle. This river ran a southeast course, and probably was either a tributary of the St. Francis or lost itself in those swamps. This river blew up for a distance of nearly fifty miles, the bed entirely destroyed, the mill swallowed up in the ruins, and an orchard of ten acres of bearing apple trees, also belonging to Mr. Riddle, nearly ruined. The earth, in these explosions, would open in fissures from forty to eighty rods in length and from three to five feet in width; their depth none knew, as no one had strength of nerve sufficient to fathom them, and the sand and earth would slide in or water run in, and soon partially fill them up. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">Large forest trees which stood in the track of these chasms would be split from root to branch, the courses of streams changed, the bottoms of lakes be pushed up from beneath and form dry land, dry land blow up, settle down, and form lakes of dark, muddy water. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> One family, in their efforts to reach the highlands by a road they all were well acquainted with, unexpectedly came to the borders of an extensive lake; the land had sunk, and water had flowed over it or gushed up out of the earth and formed a new lake. The opposite shore they felt confident could not be far distant, and they traveled on in tepid water, from twelve to forty inches in depth, of a temperature of 100 degrees, or over blood heat, at times of a warmth to be uncomfortable, for the distance of four or five miles, and reached the highlands in safety. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> On the 8th of February, 1812, the day on which the severest shocks took place, the shocks seemed to go in waves, like the waves of the sea, throwing down brick chimnies level with the ground and two brick dwellings in New Madrid, and yet, with all its desolating effects, but one person was thought to have been lost in these commotions. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">The morning after the first shock, as some men were crossing the Mississippi, they saw a black substance floating on the river, in strips four or five rods in breadth by twelve or fourteen rods in length, resembling soot from some immense chimney, or the cinders from some gigantic stove-pipe. It was so thick that the water could not be seen under it. On the Kentucky side of the river there empties into the Mississippi river two small streams, one called the Obine, the other the Forked Deer. Lieutenant Robinson, a recruiting officer in the United States army, visited that part of Kentucky lying between those two rivers in 1812, and states that he found numberless little mounds thrown up in the earth, and where a stick or a broken limb of a tree lay across these mounds they were all burnt in two pieces, which went to prove to the people that these commotions were caused by some internal action of fire. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> About four miles above Paducah, on the Ohio River, on the Illinois side, on a post-oak flat, a large circular basin was formed, more than one hundred feet in diameter, by the sinking of the earth, how deep no one can tell, as the tall stately post-oaks sank below the tops of the tallest trees. The sink filled with water, and continues so to this time. The general appearance of the country where the most violent shocks took place was fearfully changed, and many farms were ruined. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> After reading this and several reports about other earthquakes that are quite similar, I find it very hard to understand how there can be any opposition to the notion that the eruption of gases is connected with earthquakes, and possibly a major cause of them. I know of no way in which an area of land could suddenly sink by tens of feet, except by the release of large amounts of gases whose pressure had previously held open a large total volume of pore-spaces in the underlying rocks. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> The same consideration applies to the creation of the earthquake-related ocean waves called tsunamis. A rapid and very large change in some volume is necessary to set up these waves, and that volumetric change has to be of a magnitude similar to the volume of ocean water that has been displaced to make either the negative or the positive phase of the great wave. Again sinking of an area of ocean floor due to the sudden escape of gases would be a possibility as would the rapid expansion of gases that make their way from the ocean floor to the surface. There are various reports of violent bubbling of areas of the ocean, and even of flames emerging out of the water. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> Another feature of earthquakes that seems incompatible with the theory of shear strain in the rocks reaching breaking point are the deep source earthquakes. Earthquakes are known at depths down to 700 kilometers, and the pressure there is so great that sudden fracture cannot occur. The friction between two masses that slide against each other would be so great that this would far exceed any mechanical breaking strength of any rock. Any movement at such depths would occur only as a gradual adjustment proceeding in step with the driving force that causes the movement. This implied that another process must be going on down there and finding the answer to that may also then explain the features of shallower earthquakes that have so far remained unexplained, but that appear in seismic investigation quite similar to the deep ones. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> We have two recent examples: on June 8, 1994, a very large earthquake registering 8.2 emanated from 600 kilometers below Bolivia. Not far away in time and space, in 1970, there was a powerful deep earthquake in Colombia. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> The southern island arc of Indonesia and its continuation into Burma and the mountains of southern China is a very long belt that shows many features that show themselves along the whole length. Earthquakes make clear that it is related to an underlying structure of very large dimensions. The two other features that follow this same arc all the way are active volcanoes and the commercial production of oil and gas. While the belt was defined by the frequent occurrence of small quakes, it is also the region of the highest frequency of large quakes. In the 75 years between 1897 and 1972, there were ten earthquakes of magnitude eight or larger along this belt. There are no signs of a progressive shift of some land masses against others, and the rock stress situation is surely totally different in the folded mountains of Burma as in the volcanic island arc of Indonesia. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> There are other features of earthquakes that have also to be considered. There are places that are distinctive "earthquake spots." There is a spot in northern Norway where for a long time one could almost be guaranteed to feel an earthquake in any 24 hour period. These were weak earthquakes, not much above the level at which one could feel them, but there was no faultline that was slipping, no accumulation of any deformation of the surface, it just kept shaking in an area that was about 12 kilometers across. A very similar story comes from two places in the United States, one is on the western tip of Flathead Lake in Montana, the other is in Arkansas, near the small town of Enola. Both of those have been active in recent times, and the one in Arkansas is known to have been active some 80 years ago. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> Another earthquake spot is on the north shore of the St. Lawrence River, most interestingly just in a large meteorite impact structure ("astrobleme") called Charlevoix. The large meteorite struck there some 350 million years ago, and detailed evidence of this impact has been obtained. Despite the length of time that has elapsed since then, it seems that even now the area has not settled down and some activity is still clearly centered there. Some earthquakes that can be felt occur there every few days, and microquakes are registered extremely frequently. In this case, the proximity to the major faultline of the St. Lawrence River complicates the discussion somewhat but, nevertheless, the concentration of the seismic activity to the 30 mile diameter impact area is quite evident. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> Such spots clearly need a different explanation from that of plates shearing against each other. Possibly the explanation has to do with gases forcing their way up and causing fractures in the rock to open and shut repeatedly. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> We have investigated in some detail the Arkansas and the Charlevoix spots, and in the course of this discovered that they both contain a most intriguing feature which has shed further light on this type of occurrence. This is the presence of clusters of earth mounds that stand abruptly out of the alluvial plain. From a few feet to 40 feet in height and up to 200 feet or so in the horizontal dimensions, they are composed internally just of the clay and sand of the local alluvium, and no good reason has been offered to account for their origin. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> The association in both areas of these strange mounds with locally concentrated seismic activity cannot reasonably be ascribed to chance. While such mounds do occur elsewhere, dense clusters of them are extremely rare, and an explanation for them is required. One cannot argue that the shaking of the ground of the earthquakes would itself cause what appears to be a substantial extrusion from below. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> A class of a much larger type of feature is known and referred to as "mud volcano." It is also strongly related to earthquake activity. Mud volcanoes are mountains that are in the general shape of a volcano, sometimes but not always with an open hole on top and with steep sides sloping down to the plain below. The sides are made of rock debris, which presumably was ejected at the top as a mixture of such debris with water. Huge fields of mud volcanoes exist in several areas of the globe. The best known ones and the largest are in Azerbaijan on the north slopes of the Caucasus. Large eruptions of individual mud volcanoes are common there and the gases that propel the eruption are usually flammable and become ignited at the time, presumably by electrostatic sparks resulting from the friction of fast moving rock grains. Flames to a height of two kilometers have been photographed from one mud volcano whose orifice measures 120 meters across. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> The gases coming out of mud volcanoes have often quite unusual composition and contain elements that are known to be at a high concentration in the mantle of the earth and at a much lower concentration in the sediments and in the outer crust. They clearly represent a very different chemical environment from that of the sedimentary cover. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> The mounds on the earthquake spots in Enola, Arkansas and in Charlevoix on the St. Lawrence River, can be attributed to the same class of phenomenon as mud volcanoes, only on a much smaller scale. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> Gases that stream up out of cracks during earthquakes are also frequently flammable. In the collection of eyewitness reports, flames are frequently a feature. Also in recent times, the great earthquake in San Francisco in 1906 was accompanied by large fires, and it was said at the time that this was due to the fracture of gas pipes in the ground. That may well have been the case; however flames were also seen on hills nearby that had no gas pipes and also on roads and fields in nearby San Jose. The Armenian earthquake of 1990 showed a line of burnt bushes along a visible faultline. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> Large vertical displacements of areas of land can be understood if a mass of gas had previously held open pore spaces in the rocks below, and thereby raised the ground, and if these pore spaces had suddenly made connections to the surface and rapidly exhausted the gas. Such volumetric changes occurring in a matter of seconds can then account for the large tsunamis and for the flames often seen in earthquakes. As methane appears to be the most common gas in the rocks, it would seem reasonable to expect that methane would be the principal gas responsible, just as it is known in the case of mud volcanoes. The mud volcanoes merely show the locations in which earthquakes and gas eruptions are particularly frequent, and locations in which large amounts of underground mud have been generated by the frequent agitation of ground water in some fine-grained alluvial sediments.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br />
</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="color: blue; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: x-large; font-weight: bold;">Can the emission of gases be used for precursory information?</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br />
</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> There were two observations before the earthquake at Loma Prieta on October 17, 1989 that seemed to be gas related and are clearly just prior to the earthquake (Reimer, 1990 and Fraser-Smith, 1989). But these observations were made for different purposes, unrelated to earthquake research, and yet they constitute the best earthquake-predictive observations. One was the observation of the amount of helium in a shallow well, which showed a sharp increase a day before the quake (Figure 2). I suppose that this represented an increased flow of gases upwards through the rocks, that had gathered up the helium that had accumulated in the pores. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br />
</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjyBFQo4-ZlysPp3zih0XrWOqyKrqM-zvH-frXjtitH_QkZVpEolYXC1x1uLJqpCLQ60c4mhuPRFxNzLA1rlJkNDpA_a1v7_LOWDaNlKX9uPQcjbitnrallrkboyOcsgPwLN6LM/s1600/15.jpg"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><img alt="" border="0" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5559442833860783154" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjyBFQo4-ZlysPp3zih0XrWOqyKrqM-zvH-frXjtitH_QkZVpEolYXC1x1uLJqpCLQ60c4mhuPRFxNzLA1rlJkNDpA_a1v7_LOWDaNlKX9uPQcjbitnrallrkboyOcsgPwLN6LM/s1600/15.jpg" style="display: block; margin-bottom: 10px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; margin-top: 0px; text-align: center;" /></span></a></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br />
</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span style="font-weight: bold;">Figure 2</span>. From Reimer, 1990. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The other observation was that of a low radio frequency noise that is not normally present, also seen just before the quake (Figure 3); I attribute this to the interruption and reconnection of earth currents normally flowing in the groundwater, as these current paths are interrupted and re-connected by the bubbles of insulating gases that stream through the pores of the rock. Would these and other gas-related precursory effects not form the best line of earthquake investigation, to devise the most important of all, a predictive capability? </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br />
</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhQa3MWmSXYkl2LWTTqo29OEY8zahYShaFT1JO-bd0CJtBG17TGeAJrpWq3aRFR80UABJsbqnwh3VAruC6OmItMp26Q3v5ieX3mPZp3q17dU4VEdhNkJ-N1cun2Z0k7th8eobeB/s1600/16.jpg"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><img alt="" border="0" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5559442930243060546" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhQa3MWmSXYkl2LWTTqo29OEY8zahYShaFT1JO-bd0CJtBG17TGeAJrpWq3aRFR80UABJsbqnwh3VAruC6OmItMp26Q3v5ieX3mPZp3q17dU4VEdhNkJ-N1cun2Z0k7th8eobeB/s1600/16.jpg" style="display: block; margin-bottom: 10px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; margin-top: 0px; text-align: center;" /></span></a></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br />
</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span style="font-weight: bold;">Figure 3</span>. From Fraser-Smith, 1989. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The eye-witness stories of the past are all ignored or not even known to the present investigators; they are certainly not mentioned much in the modern earthquake literature. See the related documentation describing historical accounts of many large quakes (in "Eye-witness Accounts of Several Major Earthquakes," this Web site).</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br />
</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large; font-weight: bold;">References</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br />
</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Cox, K. G. (1978). Kimberlite pipes. Scientific American 238 (4). </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Fraser-Smith, A.C. et al. (1989). STAR Laboratory, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Kennedy, G.C. and Nordly, B.E. (1968). The genesis of diamond deposits Econ. Geol. 63, 495-503. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Melton, C.E. and Giardini, A.A. (1974). The composition and significance of gas released from natural diamonds from Africa and Brazil. Amer. Mineralogist 59, 775-782. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Reimer, G.M. (1990). Helium increase. Nature, 347, 342.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br />
</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-weight: bold;"><br />
<span style="color: red; font-size: x-large;">Eye-witness Accounts of Several Major Earthquakes</span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"><b>Thomas Gold</b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">1987 </span></b></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> To show how common the gas related effects have been in reports of earthquakes of the past, I am giving here a list of such reports. I do not believe that the individual authors had much information about other such reports, and therefore these reports can be taken to be free from suggestive influences. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> I am grateful to my colleague Dr. Steven Soter for his library researches that found the samples given here and many more like these. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> Norcia and Aquila (Italy), 14 January and 2 February 1703 </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">"In Aquila and Norcia, and in other places . . . the earth was here and there observed to split in cracks, from which streamed the evil odors of sulfur and bitumen; and men in Aquila most worthy of trust write that in many places after the earthquake sulfur and fire issued from the opened earth." (Quoted by Galli, 1911) </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">Lisbon, 1 November 1755 </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">". . . we began to hear a rumbling noise, like that of carriages, which increased to such a degree as to equal the noise of the loudest cannon; and immediately we felt the first shock, which was succeeded by a second and a third; on which, as on the forth, I saw several light flames of fire issuing from the sides of the mountains, resembling that which may be observed on the kindling of coal. . . . I observed from one of the hills called the Fojo, near the beach of Adraga [near Colares], that there issued a great quantity of smoke, very thick, but not very black/ which still increased with the fourth shock, and after continued to issue in a greater or less degree. Just as we heard the subterraneous rumblings, we observed it would burst forth at the Fojo; for the quantity of smoke was always proportional to the subterraneous noise." (Stoqueler, 1756) </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">Komarom (Hungary), 28 June 1763 </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> "Ruptures in the soil originated in thousands of places. From almost all of them water and quicksand were emitted together with flames and stinking smoke. . . . The river Danube began to rise . . . and the water appeared to be steaming as though boiling. It had a sulphurous smell. The majority of the ruptures occurred near the river bank and from some of them flames emerged alternately with the sand and smoke. Fertö Lake, 100 km west of Komarom, began to rumble and foam very intensely. . . . Flames as big as a barrel were seen over the river itself. Many horned cattle perished in the terrible stinking vapour that came from the earth. . . . At the bank of another smaller river, the Vag, red-colored flames rushed up from the ruptures, followed by sulphurous waters. . . . At some places the waters that came from the earth were distinctly black. The water of the river Bag appeared to be boiling." (Quoted by Rethly, 1952) </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">Lima, 30 March 1828 </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> Water in the bay "hissed as if hot iron was immersed in it," bubbles and dead fish rose to the surface, and the anchor chain of HMS Volage was partially fused while lying in the mud on the bottom. (Bagnold, 1829) </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">(The anchor chain is reported to be on display in the London Navy Museum.) </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> Owens Valley (California), 26 March 1872 </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">"People living near Independence . . . said [that] at every succeeding shock they could plainly see in a hundred places at once, bursting forth from the rifted rocks great sheets of flames apparently thirty or forty feet in length, and which would coil and lap about a moment and then disappear." (San Francisco Chronicle, 2 April 1872) </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> "Immediately following the great shock, men whose judgment and veracity is beyond question, while sitting on the ground near the Eclipse mine, saw sheets of flame on the rocky sides of the Inyo mountains but a half a mile distant. These flames, observed in several places, waved to and fro apparently clear of the ground, like vast torches; they continued for only a few minutes." (Inyo Independent, 20 April 1872) </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">Sonora (Mexico), 3 May 1887 </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> "Another effect of the earthquake which terrified the frightened inhabitants of these places, was the fire upon all the mountains around the epicenter and even some situated in the territory of Arizona, among others the ridge of San Jose. Some of these, it is said, continued in flames for many days." (Aquilera, 1920) </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> Swabia (Southern Germany), 16 November 1911 </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> The following are from among the many eyewitness accounts quoted by Schmidt and Mack (1913): </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">"We saw a sea of flames, gas-like and not electrical in nature, shoot up out of the paved market street. The height of the flames I can estimate at 8 to 12 cm; it was like when you pour petroleum or alcohol on the ground and light it." </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">"I observed very precisely how a bright fire, which had a bluish color, came out of the ground in the meadow. Its height was about 80 cm. . . . The first was present not only in the meadow but also in the whole surroundings of our house." </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> "Some people in the streets . . . noticed that for a while before the quake and particularly after it an evil stuffy air made breathing almost impossible." </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">Rumania, 10 November 1940 </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> The following are phrases used in eyewitness accounts collected by Demetrescu and Petrescu (1941): </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">". . . a thick layer like a translucid gas above the surface of the soil . . . irregular gas fires . . . flames in rhythm with the movements of the soil . . . flashes like lightning from the floor to the summit of Mt Tampa . . . flames issuing from rocks, which crumbled, with flashes also issuing from non-wooded mountainsides." </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> Sungpan-Pingwu (China), 16, 22, and 23 August 1976 </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">"From March of 1976, various large anomalies were observed over a broad region. . . . At the Wanchia commune of Chungching County, outbursts of natural gas from rock fissures ignited and were difficult to extinguish even by dumping dirt over the fissures. . . . Chu Chieh Cho, of the Provincial Seismological Bureau, related personally seeing a fireball 75 km from the epicenter on the night of 21 July while in the company of three professional seismologists.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br />
</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="color: blue; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: x-large; font-weight: bold;">The San Francisco Earthquake</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br />
</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> The earthquake that destroyed parts of San Francisco and virtually all of Santa Rosa occurred at 5:12 a.m. on 18 April 1906. It was most intense perhaps a hundred kilometers north of San Francisco. We will here list some excerpts from the numerous reports, all indicating violent gas emission from the ground, gases that contained the poisonous hydrogen sulphide and gases that were frequently flammable. It is the earthquake for with the most detailed reports exist, and which shows every type of phenomenon that we have noted in other cases. </span><br />
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</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">(a) Effects in Air </span><br />
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</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> An extensive list of noises heard at the time of the shock, compiled from witnesses by Lawson and others (1908), includes the following: From Santa Rosa, "Heard noises in SW; then felt breeze; then felt shock". From Cotati, "Sound as of a strong wind before the shock". From Point Reyes Station, "Heard roar, then felt wind on my face". From Calistoga, "A rushing noise before the shock came". From Pescadero, "Noise as of wind preceded the shock". And from Mount Hamilton, "Sound as of flight of birds simultaneously with shock". </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> Other clear evidence for gas is given by a report published on 23 April in the Santa Rosa Democrat-Republican (the first newspaper to appear after the devastation). It said: </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> J.B. Doda, who came over from Fort Ross on Monday, reports that the earthquake caused immense cracks in the earth there, from which strong gases are emitted which make men and cattle sick. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> Also, according to Edgar Larkin (1906), who collected a great many accounts, the odour of hydrogen sulphide was noted in the area of Sausalito. He also reported that sulfurous odors were pungent in Napa County during the night of the 17th and 18th before the upheaval, and lasted all day. . . . From many of the letters it is clear that the entire region north and east of San Francisco is saturated with gases of sulfur origin. . . . </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> In Santa Rosa, according to Lawson and others (1908), a strong smell of sulphur had been noticed two days before the earthquake by one Charles Kobes. Since during an earthquake eight years previously, "sulfur fumes came up from under his house which almost drove his family from home", the recurrence of this phenomenon on 16 April 1906 caused Kobes to tell his family that there would be another earthquake. </span><br />
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</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">(b) Effects in Water </span><br />
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</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> Numerous indications of hydrogen sulphide in bodies of water were reported. According to Larkin (1906), "creeks became milky in several places as if gas escaped from the water". Hydrogen sulfide bubbling through water is known to give it a milky appearance. Another report in the San Jose Herald of 2 May 1906 states that in Monterey Bay, on the day of the quake, there were thousands of strange fish floating on the water a few miles offshore, none of which were known to old fishermen on the boat. Similar reports of massive fish kills at times of earthquakes, especially of bottom-dwelling fish, are known from Japan, in some cases also associated with the description of milkiness of the water. Again, hydrogen sulphide, which is highly toxic to fish, seems a likely explanation, and in each case it is bottom dwelling fish which are not normally caught that are the chief victims. </span><br />
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</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">(c) Anomalous Animal Behaviour </span><br />
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</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> Strange animal behaviour preceding earthquakes is well documented in many parts of the world. Dogs, pigs, horses, cows and many other animals seem to show signs of restlessness or extreme disturbance prior to major earthquakes, and I would attribute this to their ability to smell the outflow of ground gases much more readily than humans and to be altogether much more concerned about smells. In San Francisco the major reports of this nature concerned the behaviour of dogs (Lawson et al., 1908), which are reported to have been howling during the night preceding the earthquake. </span><br />
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</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">(d) Earthquake Lights </span><br />
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</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> Again, as in many other earthquakes, there are many reports of flames issuing from the ground, either seen close-by or seen as a glow of light in the distance. In fact, while it was reported that the great fire, which was initiated by the earthquake, was in part caused by broken gas mains in the streets of San Francisco, this may not have been the major cause. There are numerous reports of flames seen in neighboring areas where no gas mains existed. Thus, George Madeira, a veteran mining engineer from Healdsburg, reports in the Santa Rosa Republican for 4 April 1910: </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> While investigating the natural phenomena of the seismic disturbance of April 18, 1906, I visited the mountain ranch of Mr. and Mrs. Adams, a mile and one-half northeast of Cazadero. They stated that for two night preceding the earthquake they "had seen small streams of lightning running along the ground". Their attention was called to the phenomenon by the incessant barking of their dog. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> Here, evidently some 30 hours before the shock, earthquake lights were reported in what was soon to be the epicentral region. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> During the earthquake itself there were more such accounts, like that of J.E. Houser, and engineer in San Jose, California, quoted by Larkin (1906): </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> This report included the following: </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> We could see down Alameda Street ablaze with fire, it being of a beautiful rainbow color, but faint. We passed out into the street and met a man who asked, "Did you see the fire in Alameda Street?" An hour later a friend told me that the ground all around was a blaze of fire. </span><br />
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</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">(e) Explosive Noises (Brontides) </span><br />
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</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> According to George Madeira in a letter written on 5 May 1908, as quoted by Alippi (1911), </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> Explosions much resembling the discharge of heavy guns have for the past two years been heard at intervals in the West and Middle Coast range of mountains, particularly in Marin, Sonoma and Mendocino Counties. Heavy detonations and rumblings were heard near the base of Mt. Tamalpais, Marin County, during the winter months and previous to the great earthquake which destroyed San Francisco and Santa Rosa in Sonoma County April 18th, 1906, and have been heard at stated times up to this writing. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> Some of these later explosions evidently accompanied earthquake aftershocks. </span><br />
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</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">(f) Visible Waves </span><br />
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</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> The phenomenon of slowly rolling waves, like the waves at sea, was reported from many places in the San Francisco earthquake. Lawson and others (1908) list over twenty such accounts distributed geographically from the vicinity of Eureka to Visalia, a distance of more than 600 kilometres. Several of these accounts explicitly compare the ground motion observed to that of waves in the ocean. Similar accounts are also in descriptions of other earthquakes, especially that in Lisbon. These waves were discussed by John Michell (1761), a brilliant scientist of the 18th century. What he presumed was happening was that soft alluvial deposits can be bent and do not fracture as readily as the hard rock beneath. If a great mass of gas suddenly comes from cracks in the rock, it may lift up this carpet and in that case, gravity waves quite similar to the waves in the ocean would be set up.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br />
</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="color: blue; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: x-large; font-weight: bold;">Can Earthquakes Be Predicted?</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br />
</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> We see that these descriptions make major earthquakes look much like violent eruptions, quite similar to gas eruptions from volcanoes or mud volcanoes. The airborne noises, the flames, the air pollution are all similar, and while most of the intense effects take place at the time of the quake, some of the effects occur as precursors and cannot therefore be ascribed to secondary effects of the mechanical deformation of the ground. It seems very strange that in all the attempts to predict earthquakes, no gas observations are included. Highly accurate measurements of the distortion of the ground represent the main effort, since the current theory has earthquakes resulting from a gradually augmenting stress in the rocks until they reach the breaking strain and the earthquake occurs. It is therefore supposed that one can measure the building up of the stress by the slight deformation prior to a quake. However, as a means to predicting earthquakes, this method has been entirely unsuccessful. The ground does distort on occasions, but not by any unusual amount before an earthquake. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> The evacuation of Haicheng two hours before a devastating quake is an example of a successful prediction, and it was based mainly on gas effects such as a cloud of warmer air and fog developing above the known faultline, strange and nauseating smells and changes in groundwater levels. The same effects have been mentioned in very many of the ancient records. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> Gases can indeed have a lot to do with earthquakes. A large volume of gas entering the crust of the Earth from deeper levels and at a high pressure, will greatly change the mechanical properties of the rock. Pore-spaces will be inflated, and the overburden weight of the rock will be effectively relieved by the pressure of the gas. The great weight of the overburden would normally have resulted in high internal friction, opposing any slippage at all but the shallowest levels. But with gas effectively bearing the overburden, slippage can occur much more easily. Much smaller values of stress in the rock will then be sufficient to cause a quake. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> The absence of high stresses along the San Andreas fault was indeed a surprise to the investigators, when they had a chance to make such measurements in the deep well drilled at Cajon Pass in Southern California. They also failed to find there the extra heat that the known past slippage should have left behind, had it taken place without gas levitation. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> When gas has invaded an area of the crust, it generally shows some emission at the surface that can be observed, and that results in the various effects mentioned. Of course the gases that were in the pore-spaces to start with are pushed up first, before the "new" gas has got to the surface. This brings up smells which cause surprise or consternation among many animals; it brings up more carbon-dioxide and less oxygen than air has normally, and this drives animals out of burrows; it brings up humidity and temperature of the sub-surface and thus frequently makes a fog. This contains more of the heavy CO2 molecule than the average air, and can therefore make a warmer cloud that stays on the ground instead of rising rapidly. Radioactive gases that are normally generated in the ground make a prominent appearance as they are flushed from the ground. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> These signs should be taken to mean that the rock underneath has now suddenly lost much of its strength, and even small stresses will allow it to break. There was no particular build-up of stress prior to the quake, and measurements of this are therefore useless as predictors. The sudden event was the gas invasion that weakened the rock, and it is on this that a prediction method has to be based. During earthquakes and after, a lot more gas escape can usually be observed, and by then the deep source gas may have made its way to the surface. This is often combustible, probably mainly methane as this is in most common gas in deep rocks, and it often catches fire. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> In China, in Japan, in the Soviet Union, much more attention is paid to gas phenomena. Japan even has a "Laboratory of Earthquake Chemistry." The US is far behind in this field, not because it does not have the technology, but just because it took a wrong choice some time ago, and now does not wish to change course. But the citizens of earthquake-prone regions will be more concerned with obtaining a warning than to be party to a scientific controversy. Sub-surface gas observations are simple and comparatively inexpensive, such as changes in groundwater levels in water wells, or changes in gas pressure above a water table. It is high time that California and the Central Mississippi region obtained the knowledge and experience in this field that will be necessary to establish a meaningful prediction service. Instrumentation operated by scientists is one aspect of this; public earthquake education and a reporting network is another, to assure the widest possible coverage for the observation of the many phenomena that may be relevant for predictions. One wonders how many such observations go unreported because their relation to earthquakes is not generally known.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br />
</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large; font-weight: bold;">References</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br />
</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Alippi, T. (1911). The 1952 Fort Yuma earthquake—two additional accounts. Seismol. Soc. Amer. Bull. 68, 1761-1762. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Aquilera, J.G. (1920). The Sonora Earthquake of 1887. Seismol. Soc. Amer. Bull. 10, 31-44. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Bagnold, T. (1829). Extraordinary Effect of an Earthquake at Lima, 1828. Quart. J. Soc. Lit. Art 27, 429-430. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Demetrescu, G. and Petrescu, G. (1941). Sur les phénomènes lumineux qui ont accompagné le tremblement de terre de Roumanie de 10 Novembre 1940. Acad. Roumaine Bull. Sec. Sci. 23, 292-296. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Galli, I. (1911). Raccolta e classificazione di fenomeni luminosi osservati nei terremoti. Bol. Soc. Sismol. Ital. 14, 221-447. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Larkin, E.L. (1906). The great San Francisco earthquake. Open Court 20, 393-406. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Lawson, A.C., et al. (1908). the California Earthquake of April 18, 1906. Carnegie Institution, Washington, D.C. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Michell, J. (1761). Conjectures concerning the cause, and observations upon the Phaenomena, of Earthquakes. Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. 51, 566-634. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Rethly, A. (1952). A Kárpámedencék Földrengesei 445-1918. Academic Publishing House: Budapest. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Schmidt, A. and Mack, K. (1913). Das Süddeutesches Erdbeben vom 16 November 1911. Württ, Jahrbücher f. Statist. u. Landeskde., Jahrg. 1912, Heft I, 96-139. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Stoqueler, Mr. (1756). Observations, Made at Colares, on the Earthquake at Lisbon, of the 1st of November 1755, by Mr. Stoqueler, Consul of Hamburg. Phil Trans. Roy. Soc. 49, 413-418. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br />
</span></div><div style="color: red; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-weight: bold;"><br />
<span style="font-size: x-large;">The Deep, Hot Biosphere</span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"><b>Thomas Gold</b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">July 1992 </span></b></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"><span style="font-weight: bold;">Abstract</span>: (Subject: microbiology) </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> There are strong indications that microbial life is widespread at depth in the crust of the Earth, just as such life has been identified in numerous ocean vents. This life is not dependent on solar energy and photosynthesis for its primary energy supply, and it is essentially independent of the surface circumstances. Its energy supply comes from chemical sources, due to fluids that migrate upwards from deeper levels in the Earth. In mass and volume it may be comparable with all surface life. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> Such microbial life may account for the presence of biological molecules in all carbonaceous materials in the outer crust, and the inference that these materials must have derived from biological deposits accumulated at the surface is therefore not necessarily valid. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> Subsurface life may be widespread among the planetary bodies of our solar system, since many of them have equally suitable conditions below, while having totally inhospitable surfaces. One may even speculate that such life may be widely disseminated in the universe, since planetary type bodies with similar sub-surface conditions may be common as solitary objects in space, as well as in other solar-type systems. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> We are familiar with two domains of life on the Earth: the surface of the land and the body of the oceans. Both domains share the same energy source: namely sunlight, used in the process of photosynthesis in green plants and micro–organisms. In this process the molecules of water and of CO2 are dissociated, and the products of this then provide chemical energy that supports all the other forms of life. Most of this energy is made available through the recombination of carbon and hydrogen compounds concentrated in the plants, with the oxygen that became distributed into the atmosphere and oceans by the same photosynthetic process. The end product is again largely water and CO2, thereby closing the cycle. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> This was the general concept about life and the sources of its energy until approximately twelve years ago, when another domain of life was discovered (1). This new domain, the "ocean vents", found first in some small regions of the ocean floor, but now found to be widespread (2), proved to have an energy supply for its life that was totally independent of sunlight and all surface energy sources. There the energy for life was derived from chemical processes, combining fluids - liquids and gasses - that came up continuously from cracks in the ocean floor, with substances available in the local rocks and in the ocean water. Such sources of chemical energy still exist on the Earth, because the materials here have never been able to reach the condition of the lowest chemical energy. The Earth formed by the accumulation of solid materials, condensed in a variety of circumstances from a gaseous nebula surrounding the sun. Much of this material had never been hot after its condensation, and it contained substances that would be liquid or gaseous when heated. In the interior of the Earth, heat is liberated by radioactivity, by compression, and by gravitational sorting; and this caused partial liquefaction and gasification. As liquids, gases and solids make new contacts, chemical processes can take place that represent, in general, an approach to a lower chemical energy condition. Some of the energy so liberated will increase the heating of the locality, and this in turn will liberate more fluids there, and so accelerate the processes that release more heat. Hot regions will become hotter, and chemical activity will be further stimulated there. This may contribute to, or account for the active and hot regions in the Earth's crust that are so sharply defined. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> Where such liquids or gases stream up to higher levels into different chemical surroundings, they will continue to represent a chemical disequilibrium and therefore a potential energy source. There will often be circumstances where chemical reactions with surrounding materials might be possible and would release energy; but where the temperature is too low for the activation of the reactions. This is just the circumstance where biology can successfully draw on chemical energy. The life in the ocean vents is one example of this. There it is bacterial life that provides the first stage in the process of drawing on this form of chemical energy: for example, methane and hydrogen is oxidized to CO2 and water, with oxygen available from local sulfates and metal oxides. Hydrogen sulfide is also frequently present, and leads to the production of water and metal sulfides; there may be many other reactions of which we are not yet aware. Of all the forms of life that we now know, bacteria appear to represent the one that can most readily utilize energy from a great variety of chemical sources. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> How widespread is life based on such internal energy sources of the Earth? Are the ocean vents the sole representatives of this? Or do they merely represent the examples that were discovered first? After all, the discovery of these is recent, and we may well expect that other locations that are harder to investigate would have escaped detection so far. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> Bacteria can live at higher temperatures than any other known organisms; 110 °C has been verified, and some biologists consider that the upper temperature limit may be as high as 150 °C (providing always that the pressure is sufficient to raise the boiling point of water above this temperature). </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> There can be little doubt that venting of liquids and gases from areas of the Earth's mantle beneath the crust is not limited to a few cracks in the ocean floor. Indeed fossilized "dead" ocean vents have already been discovered (3), showing that the phenomenon is widespread and occurred in different geologic epochs. A similar supply of fluids seems to be widespread also in land areas, where it is much harder to investigate; but it has been noted that many areas of basement rocks contain methane and other hydrocarbons. This has been seen in numerous mining and tunnelling operations for a long time. Major fault-lines have been noted to be high-spots of hydrocarbon seepage (4). Hydrocarbons have also been encountered in deep drilling in basement rocks, as in the Soviet superdeep well in the Kola peninsula and in the pilot hole of the German Continental Deep Drilling Project (KTB). The large quantities of methane hydrates (methane-water ices) found in many areas of the ocean floor, and thought to contain more methane than all other known methane deposits (5,6), suggest a widely distributed methane supply from below. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> In land areas, deep in the rocks, it would be much harder to discover and investigate biological activity than in the ocean vents,. The pore-spaces in the rocks are quite sufficient to accommodate bacterial life, and the rocks themselves may contain many of the chemicals that can be nutrients together with the ascending fluids. But, of course, there would be no space for larger life forms. Just as bacterial life in the ocean vents would not have been discovered had the secondary larger life forms not drawn attention to it, so any active bacterial life deep in the solid crust could have gone largely unnoticed. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> The remains of bacteria in the form of molecules - "hopanoids" (derived from hopanes) - a material coming from bacterial cell-walls, have however been found in all of the several hundred samples of oil, coal and kerogen (distributed carbonaceous material in the crust) examined by by Ourisson et. al. (7). These authors note the widespread or apparently ubiquitous presence of these molecules in the sedimentary rocks, and they give an estimate of the total quantity as of the order of 1013 or 1014 tons, more than the estimated 1012 tons of organic carbon in all living organisms on or near the surface. They also note the virtually identical pattern of the chromatogram of these molecules in oil and in coal. Further they note that some of the molecules most commonly used to identify the presence of biological material in petroleum, such as pristane and phytane, are not necessarily derived from plant chlorophyll as is commonly believed, but could well be products of the same bacterial cultures as those that gave rise to the hopanoids. The presence of these bio-molecules can therefore not be taken to prove a derivation of the bulk substance from surface biological debris. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> What are the depths to which active bacterial life may have penetrated? Could bacteria get down into the deep rocks? Would this represent just a minor branch of all the surface biological activity, or could it be comparable with it in the total amount of chemical processing caused by it? How important would such life have been for the chemical evolution of the crust of the Earth? </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> An upper limit of the temperature of 110 to 150 °C would place a limit to the depth of between 5 and 10 kilometers in most areas of the crust. The mere question of access to such depths for bacteria would be no problem. Even just the rate of growth of bacterial colonies along cracks and pore spaces in which the requisite nutrients are available, would take them down in a few thousand years - a very small fraction of the time spans available. In fact, fluid movements in pore spaces would provide still much faster transport. The tidal pumping of ground water alone would be sufficient to distribute bacteria down to 10 km in less than a thousand years. Probably longer times would have been required to allow for the adaptation to the high temperatures. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> The total pore-space available in the land areas of the Earth down to 5 kilometer depth can be estimated as 2 x 1022 cm3, (taking 3% porosity as an average value). If material of the density of water fills these pore spaces, then this would represent a mass of 2 x 1016 tons. What fraction of this might be bacterial mass? If it were 1% or 2 x1014 tons, it would still be equivalent to a layer of the order of 1 1/2 meter thickness of living material if spread out over all of the land surface. This would indeed be more than the existing surface flora and fauna. We do not know at present how to make a realistic estimate of the subterranean mass of material now living, but all that can be said is that one must consider it possible that it is comparable to all the living mass at the surface. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> Together with this consideration would go the consideration of the cumulative amount of chemical activity that could be ascribed to this deep biosphere, and with that the importance it may have had for the chemical evolution of the crust, the oceans and atmosphere, and the development of the surface biology. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> The remarkable degree of chemical selection leading to concentrated deposits of certain minerals has long been an enigma. How can processes in the crust lead to the production of a nugget of gold or a crystal of galena, when the refining process had to concentrate these materials by a factor of more than 1011 from the original elemental mix? How much of the concentrated metal minerals found have so far been explained satisfactorily? What energy sources were available to produce such large local decreases of entropy, and how was the necessary energy applied? Is this not a field where the complexity of carbon chemistry and biology, with their ability to be highly selective and to mediate chemical processes, may have had a much larger share than had previously been thought? It is characteristic, after all, for biology to generate important local decreases of entropy at the expense of energy absorbed and entropy rejected elsewhere. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> If there exists this deep, hot biosphere, it will become a central item in the discussion of many, or indeed most, branches of the Earth sciences. How much of the biological imprint of material in the sediments is due to surface life and how much to life at depth? Do the biological molecules of petroleum and coal indicate now merely the additions from the deep biosphere to materials of primordial origin, rather than indicate a biological origin of the bulk of the substances themselves? * </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">________________________________________</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">*Sir Robert Robinson, after studying the composition of natural petroleum, considered this possibility as likely. He wrote: "Actually it cannot be too strongly emphasized that petroleum does not present the composition picture expected from modified biogenic products, and all the arguments from the constituents of ancient oils fit equally well, or better, with the conception of a primordial hydrocarbon mixture to which bio-products have been added" (8). Although there has been much detailed work since, demonstrating the variety of biological molecules that exist in most petroleum, none of this can make the distinction between the two opposing viewpoints. This work was frequently cited to support the bio-origin theory rather than the bio-addition, as a widespread microbiology at depth was not put under consideration. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">________________________________________</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> Many deductions that are firmly in the geological thinking of the present time may have to be reconsidered, if there is indeed such an abundance of life at depth. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> One cannot discuss these possibilities without connecting them with the questions of the origin of life. Photosynthesis is an extremely complex process which must lie some considerable way down on the path of evolution. Energy sources that were simpler to tap had to sustain life for all the time from its origin to the perfection of the photosynthetic process. Presumably these were chemical energy sources, provided by the substances of the Earth. Now one will want to examine whether these were perhaps the same as the chemical energy sources providing the life in the ocean vents, and possibly the bacterial life in the rocks about which we are speculating here. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> The rocks that have hydrogen, methane and other fluids percolating upwards would seem to be the most favorable locations for the first generation of self-replicating systems (9). Deep in the rocks the temperature, pressure, and chemical surroundings are constant for geologically long periods of time and, therefore, no rapid response to changing circumstances is needed. Ionizing radiations are low and unchanging. No defense is needed against all the photochemical changes induced by ultraviolet light or even by the broad spectrum of visible sunlight. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> Bacteriologists have speculated that since a large sub-group of archaebacteria - the most primitive and judged to be the most ancient bacteria - are thermophiles, this may indicate that primitive life evolved at such high temperatures in the first place (10). If it did, and if the archaebacteria are the earliest forms of bacteria, evolved at some depth in the rocks, they may have spread laterally at depth, and they may have evolved and progressed upwards to survive at lower temperatures nearer the surface. Some combination of lateral spread at depth and spread over the surface with subsequent re-adaptation to the conditions at depth will have allowed them to populate all the deep areas that provided suitable conditions to support such life. Of course now, when the surface is replete with bacteria of all kinds, it may be difficult to unravel the evolution in each of the domains. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">If the deep, hot biosphere of microbial life exists in the rocks as well as at the ocean vents, what would be the consequences? Could we expect to have seen any evidence already? </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> Many reports have been published in recent times, describing the discovery of bacteria in deep locations where they were not expected. The most striking example is the discovery deep in the granitic rock of Sweden. While drilling to a depth of 6.7 kilometers in an ancient meteorite impact crater called the "Siljan Ring", very large quantities of a fine-grained magnetite were encountered. Magnetite, a magnetic iron oxide, exists normally in the granite in the form of large crystals (~1 millimeter) and at a low mean concentration. What was found was quite different from this. Grains in the micron size range were found in a thick sludge or paste, with a liquid binder which was a light oil. This was seen first at a time when the drilling fluid was water, with only occasional small additions of a plant oil as a lubricant. This sludge contained oil to the complete exclusion of water, and the oil was largely a simple, light, hydrogen saturated petroleum, completely different from plant oils. (It is worth noting that no sediments of any kind had been encountered in the drilling, but only granitic and igneous rock). The magnetic grains were not only particularly small, but also had a different trace element content from the coarse magnetite grains in the granite. Neither the magnetite nor the oil had a simple explanation in terms of the material of the formation or of any of the drilling additives. The quantities of this sludge found in this first discovery were not small -- 60 kilograms of it filled a drillpipe to the almost complete exclusion of the water-based drilling fluid. Later a pump pumped up 15 tons of a similar oil, together with about 12 tons of the magnetite (11). Similar oil-magnetite pastes have been reported in several other oil drilling operations, and microorganisms have been identified that mediate the reduction of local ferric iron of the formation to the lesser oxidized magnetite, using the hydrocarbons as the reducing agent (12-14). </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> Later, when oil-based drilling fluid had been in use for several months, it was discovered that this had become loaded with many tons - at least 15 and possibly 30 - of this fine-grained magnetite. It became clear that there was a phenomenon that occurred on a large scale, and that was a major process in the rocks at a depth of between 5.5 and 6.7 kilometers. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> It is very difficult to see how concentrations of this material could occur without bacterial action; and indeed samples of it taken from a depth of 4 km or deeper, have allowed several strains of previously unknown thermophilic, anaerobic bacteria to be cultured.* </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">________________________________________</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">*Dr. U. Szewzyk at the National Bacteriological Laboratory (Sweden) has cultured several strains of anaerobic, thermophilic bacteria from samples taken below 4,000 m in the Gravberg borehole , Siljan Ring, Central Sweden. Personal communication. Also Dr. K. Pedersen at the Department of Marine Biology of the University of Göteborg, reports: "Deep ground water microbiology in Swedish granitic rock" (15). </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">________________________________________</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> It will therefore be worthwhile to search for the presence of microorganisms in many other deep locations in the rocks where chemical energy is known to be available. The obvious location for this are the deep oil or gas wells. Bacterial cultures can be attempted from samples taken with the necessary precautions (maintenance of temperature, pressure, exclusion of oxygen) and using culturing media similar to the local chemical surroundings at the places of origin. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> Although it had often been said that the presence of bacteria in oil can be identified by the chemical signs of "biodegradation" of that oil, we believe that this is misleading. Oil showing none of the known signs of "biodegradation" may still be coming from a region rich in bacterial life, and the oil may still have gained biological molecules from this, without however having suffered any other changes. The reason for this is that microbial attack at depth is likely to be limited by the availability of oxygen and not by that of hydrocarbons; and in that case it seems to be the general rule that bacteria would use first the light hydrocarbons, the molecules from methane to pentane, before attacking any of the heavier hydrocarbons. If the light hydrocarbons are present in sufficient quantity to exhaust the locally available oxygen sources (iron oxides, sulfates, and perhaps other oxides with sufficiently low oxygen binding energy), then the liquid oils will not suffer any biodegradation. Under these circumstances, which are probably common at depth in petroleum provinces, oil will then commonly exist with additions of biomolecules, and yet without any signs of biodegradation. It is the finding of apparently undegraded oil that nevertheless contained biomolecules, that had been considered as the most compelling evidence for a biological origin of the oil itself. This consideration would no longer be valid, and a non-biological origin for the bulk of the terrestrial hydrocarbons, just as for all the abundant hydrocarbons on the other planetary bodies, then seems probable. This is one example where the recognition of the existence of abundant micobial life at depth may change major considerations in geology and geochemistry. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> Where we find "biodegraded" oil, it must have been subjected to conditions of greater availability of oxygen and lesser availability of the hydrocarbon gases; presumably, this occurs generally nearer the surface where atmospheric oxygen is available in ground-water and where the concentration of the light hydrocarbons is low, as these are gases at the low ambient pressure. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> It may be that we shall find a simple general rule to apply: that microbial life exists in all the locations where microbes can survive; that would mean all the locations that have a chemical energy supply and that are at a temperature below the maximum one to which microbes can adapt. There would be no locations on the Earth that have been protected from "infection" for the long periods of geologic time. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> Chemical energy must be available, but it must not be liberated spontaneously without the intervention of the organisms. That means we have to be concerned with regions in which the chemical processes that can release energy would not run spontaneously; the temperature must be below the activation temperature for the reactions, or a set of reactions must be involved that give out energy on completion, but that require intermediate steps which absorb energy. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> Research on the deep microbial life would allow one to judge the extent of it on the Earth, and with that one can expect to gain an insight into the extent to which microbial activity has contributed to the chemical evolution of the crust and its various mineral deposits. Prospecting techniques for minerals and for petroleum may be improved. The derivation of petroleum is a subject of great economic importance, and new information may profoundly influence the prospecting techniques and the estimates of the quantities of petroleum and natural gas that remain to be discovered. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> The other planetary bodies in our solar system do not have favorable circumstances for surface life. The numerous bodies that have solid surfaces all have conditions of atmospheric pressure and temperature unfavorable for the presence of liquid water. Mars, deemed the least unfavorable in this respect, has been investigated (by the Viking landers) and no indications of any biological activity has been found. With this, it seemed that there was little or no chance of finding any other life in the solar system. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> With the possibility of sub-surface life, the outlook is quite different. Many planetary bodies will have temperature and pressure regimes in their interiors that would allow liquid water to exist. Hydrocarbons clearly are plentiful not only on all the gaseous major planets, but also on the solid bodies: the large satellites, numerous asteroids, the planet Pluto, comets and meteorites; and there is every reason to believe that hydrocarbon compounds were incorporated in all of the planetary bodies at their formation. The circumstances in the interior of most of the solid planetary bodies will not be too different from those at a depth of a few kilometers in the Earth. The depth at which similar pressures and temperatures will be reached will be deeper, as the bodies are smaller than the Earth; but this fact itself does not constitute any handicap for microbial life. If in fact such life originated at depth in the Earth, there are at least ten other planetary bodies in our solar system that would have had a similar chance for originating microbial life. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> Could the space program ever discover this? Is there a possibility of finding life of an independent origin on some of the other planetary bodies? </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> We shall have to see whether microorganisms exist at depths on the Moon, on Mars, in the asteroids, and in the satellites of the major planets. Such investigations may become central to that great question of the origin of life, and with that they may become a central subject in future space programs. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> There is a chance that an independent origin could indeed be identified by a number of criteria - the discovery of opposite chiral asymmetries (50-50 chance in case of an independent origin, while the observation of the same chirality in just one other case would be uninformative); a different choice of basic molecules, or any of the criteria that have been used to show that all terrestrial life has one common origin. (Incidentally, as has often been discussed, this does not imply that there has been only one occurrence leading to an origin of life: if there had been several, the most successful would have supplanted all others and after that there would be no possibility for a fresh start in competition with evolved biology.) </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> It is difficult to foresee at the present time that the space program could proceed to the sophistication and power to perform very deep drilling operations on distant planets. However, there are other options. Deep rifts, such as the Valley Marinera on Mars, expose terrain that was at one time several kilometers below the surface. Samples from there, from the massive landslides in that valley, could be returned to Earth and analyzed for chemical evidence that living materials have existed there in the past. Similarly, one may sample lunar craters that have exposed deep materials fairly late in the lunar history; or deep rifts and young craters on any of the other solid planetary bodies. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> Recognizing that even the seemingly most inhospitable bodies may harbor life, care would now be necessary to avoid contamination by terrestrial organisms. Manned expeditions, whatever other difficulties there might be with them, can certainly not be kept sterile, and would therefore spoil such researches for all future times. Only very clean unmanned space vehicles going to planetary bodies that have not previously been visited by contaminated vehicles would qualify to bring back meaningful samples of a biology that resembles that of the Earth. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> If life was restricted to the proximity of the surface of planetary bodies, then "panspermia", the transport of living material through space over astronomical distances, would be very improbable, as such living material would have to remain viable in a dormant form for very long times; and in most of the suggested forms of panspermia, it would not be protected sufficiently well against the cumulative effects of the cosmic rays. Meteoritic impacts could well have exploded large chunks of rock from one planet and such chunks may have escaped complete vaporization and excessive heating both during expulsion from one body and accretion on another. But unless the living organisms were deep inside of a rock, so as to be shielded by many meters of solids from the cosmic ray bombardment of space, there would be little chance of transferring functional living materials. Panspermia becomes a much more realistic possibility if there is abundant life at depth in the planetary bodies. There would have been a vastly greater number of opportunities for a transfer between planets in earlier epochs, when the rates of bombardment were much higher than they are now. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> Meteorites are being collected at the present time that are thought to have derived from Mars (16) and indeed are found to contain carbonaceous material. Can one find traces of biological substances in them? </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> The surface life on the Earth, based on photosynthesis for its overall energy supply, may be just one strange branch of life, an adaptation specific to a planet that happened to have such favorable circumstances on its surface as would occur only very rarely: a favorable atmosphere, a suitable distance from an illuminating star, a mix of water and rock surface, etc. The deep, chemically supplied life, however, may be very common in the universe. Astronomical considerations make it seem probable that planetary-sized, cold bodies have formed in many locations from the materials of molecular clouds, even in the absence of a central star, and such objects may be widespread and common in our and in other galaxies. It is therefore a possibility that they mostly support this or similar forms of life. Panspermia not only over interplanetary but over interstellar distances would then be a possibility, and it would take the form of the distribution from one body carrying active living forms for indefinite periods of time and in a protected environment, to another body capable of supporting similar life. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> There is one further consideration that needs to be mentioned: the upper temperature limit of bacterial life may well be in the region of 120 to 150 °C. But the availability of chemical energy sources will go down to much greater depths and much higher temperatures. Many chemical mixtures will not spontaneously run down to chemical equilibrium until temperatures more in the neighborhood of a 1000 °C are reached. Therefore, underneath the type of biosphere which we have discussed here, there will generally lie a large domain that is too hot for the bacterial life we know, but that is nevertheless capable of supporting other systematic chemical processing systems that can mediate those energy reactions. Could there be such higher temperature systems that act in a way similar to life, even if we may not identify them as life? Perhaps their chemistry would not be based on carbon, like the life forms we know; the element silicon comes to mind as an element that can also form molecules of some complexity, and frequently with a higher temperature stability than similar carbon-based molecules. Perhaps there are chemical systems that lack some of the properties we use in our present definition of life. Self-replication is a property possessed by simple crystal growth: it is only when self-replication is associated with an adaptive capability that the complex forms develop that we identify as life. In the case of unfamiliar circumstances and materials we may fail to recognize these properties. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> There is a lot of distance between plain crystallography and life. It is the bridging of this distance that forms the central piece of the theories of the origin of life. Should we perhaps look at this deeper, hotter domain to find the clues? This is a region where the conditions have remained constant for the longest periods, and where the chemical energy sources have perhaps been most plentuful. Thermodynamics teaches us that a high degree of organization can develop only where there is a supply of energy; but we do not yet understand whether the availability of energy will itself promote the formation of such organized systems. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> Cairns-Smith (17), writing about the origin of life, has pointed out that once self-replicating adaptive systems have formed, they may well adapt gradually and change to a totally different chemistry. The chemistry of life we now know need not be the one associated with its essential origin. Thus if a higher temperature life (or pre-life) exists, based on a different chemistry, it may still have an evolutionary relationship with ours, and one cannot presume to know in which sense such an evolution may have taken place.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br />
</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large; font-weight: bold;">References </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br />
</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">1. Corliss, J.B., Dymond, J., Gordon, L.I., Edmond, J.M., von Herzen, R.P., Ballard, R.D., Green, K., Williams, D., Bainbridge, A., Crane, K., VanAndel, T.H. (1979) SCIENCE 203, 1073-1083. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">2. Brooks, J.M., Wiesenburg, D.A., Roberts, H., Carney, R.S., MacDonald, I.R., Fisher, C.R., Guinasso, Jr., N.L., Sager, W.W., McDonald, S.J., Burke, Jr., R.A., Aharon, P., Bright, T.J. (1990) EOS 71, 1772-1773. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">3. Haymon, R.M., Koski, R.A., Sinclair, C. (1984) SCIENCE 223,1407-1409. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">4. Jones, V. T. and Drozd, R. J.: Bull. (1983) A.A.P.G. 67, 6, 932-952. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">5. Kvenvolden, K. (1988) Chem. Geol. 71, 41-51. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">6. MacDonald, G. J. (1990) Climatic Change, 16, 247-281. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">7. Ourisson, G., Albrecht, P. & Rohmer, M. (1984) Sci. Am 251 2. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">8. Robinson, R. (1963) Nature (London) 199, 113-114. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">9. Corliss, J. B., Baross, J. A., Hoffman, S.E. (1981) in Oceanologica Acta No. SP, p 59-69. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">10. Woese, C. R. (1987) Microbial Review 51, 221-271. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">11. Gold, T. (1991) Oil and Gas Journal, 89, 76-78. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">12. Lovley, D. R., Stolz, J.F., Nord, Jr., G.L., Phillips, E.J.P. (1987) Nature (London) 330, 252-254. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">13. Sparks, N. C. H., Mann, S., Bazylinski, D.A., Lovley, D.R., Jannasch, H.W., Frankel, R.B. (1990) Earth & Plan. Sci. Letters, 98, 14-22. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">14. Saunders, D. F., Burson, K. R., & Thompson, C.K. (1990) AAPG 75, 3, 389-408. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">15. Pedersen, K. (1989) Deep Ground Water Microbiology in Swedish Granitic Rock (Swed. Nuclear Fuel Waste Manage. Co., Stockholm), Tech. Rep. 89-23. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">16. Wright, I.P., Grady, M.M. & Pillinger, C.T. (1989) Nature (London) 340, 220-222. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">17. Cairns-Smith, A. G. (1971) The Life Puzzle. Oliver & Boyd, Edinburgh. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Return to top of page. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-weight: bold;"><br />
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<span style="color: red; font-size: x-large;">Life on other Planets</span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"><b>Thomas Gold</b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">May 1997 </span></b></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> Meteorites have been collected from the ice fields of Antarctica and several of them appear to have come from Mars. Trace element ratios such as the sequence of noble gases from neon to xenon, as well as the rather unusual nitrogen isotopic ratio of the Martian atmosphere, are so specific that it seems very improbable that any other body would match this so closely. Some of these meteorites contain unoxidized carbon, some of it in the form of hydrocarbons similar to molecules that are commonly found in petroleum on the Earth. One of the Martian carbon-bearing meteorites, denoted ALH84001, was analyzed and gave an indication that microbial activity had taken place in this material. Detailed examination made it seem very improbable that this evidence was due to contamination in Antarctica, but rather that the biological imprint had been present in the interior of the stone before it fell to the Earth. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> For an object to be shot off from Mars into an orbit that could eventually end on the Earth, a very large meteorite impact on Mars would have to have been responsible. There are many large impact craters on Mars, so that this does not seem improbable. But in a large impact, most of the material excavated and possibly propelled to a high velocity, will have come from a considerable depth, and the contribution made by surface or near-surface materials is likely to be a very small one. In that case the past surface conditions on Mars are not significant factors for the evaluation of the evidence provided by this meteorite. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> Mars, like the Earth, will have internal heat sources, and temperatures will be increasing with depth. Water is so common on planetary bodies that it seems almost certain it will be present in large quantity also on Mars, and there must then be a depth range in which it is liquid. If the surface temperature has decreased over geologic times, the depth range of liquid water would have moved a little lower. The surface itself and a thin layer below are cold, so that any water coming up from deeper levels would generally not spill over the surface, but freeze in the rocks. Very little would reach the surface; in contrast to the circumstances on the Earth, where a surface temperature above the freezing point of water allowed all the ocean water to come up and spill over the surface. Small amounts of water vapor have indeed been detected in the Martian atmosphere. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> The surface materials will have had a very different chemical history on the Earth as on Mars; but below the surface there will be somewhat similar materials on the two bodies, as represented by a mix of the meteorites, the left-over debris of planetary formation. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">A comparison of the Martian meteorites with terrestrial sub-surface materials may then be meaningful. Temperatures and pressures will generally increase with depth, but at different rates on the different bodies, rates that are not yet known for Mars.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br />
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<div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-weight: bold;"><span style="color: blue; font-size: x-large;">The Widespread Presence of Hydrocarbons in the Solar System and in the Universe</span></span></div><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-weight: bold;"> </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br />
</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> The stability of hydrocarbon molecules against thermal dissociation is greatly increased by pressure, an effect frequently ignored in the Western petroleum literature. This has been studied by several thermodynamicists in the USSR., and the conclusion they reached was that on Earth there could be hydrocarbon molecules at a depth of as much as 300 km, at a temperature of 1,000°C and a pressure of 100 kilobar. In the Western literature no oils are expected to exist at deeper levels than 10 km, and hence a supply of petroleum from below seemed impossible. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> Of all the materials in the crust, the hydrocarbons (natural petroleum liquids and gases) appear to be the carriers of a large fraction of the element carbon, percolating to the surface in thousands of locations. Once in our oxidizing atmosphere they would rapidly be converted to CO2. Atmospheric-oceanic CO2, which the plants use for their carbon, would be depleted in a small fraction of geologic time, chiefly by the deposition of carbonate rocks. A source of carbon must be provided by the interior of the Earth, throughout all of the time that carbonates have been laid down, and the geologic record shows this to have occurred in all geologic epochs. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> Similar outgassing processes seem to have occurred on many other planetary bodies. Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune have hydrocarbons in their massive atmospheres. Titan, a satellite of Saturn, has a substantial atmosphere in which the hydrocarbons methane and ethane seem to play a role similar to that of water on Earth, forming clouds and probably rain, and as with water here, there must be evaporation from lakes or oceans on Titan to resupply the clouds. In addition to methane and ethane, a number of other hydrocarbon molecules are identified spectroscopically, and they are quite similar to the range of molecules in terrestrial natural petroleum. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> Many of the asteroids, the small planetary objects in orbits between Mars and Jupiter, have a surface reflectance resembling that of solid hydrocarbons. Also, interplanetary dust grains have been captured and analyzed with great skill and have shown the larger hydrocarbon molecules [polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons] to be present in them. Also, the molecular clouds in the galaxy, out of which solar systems like ours will have formed, contain carbon, the fourth most abundant element, largely as hydrocarbons. The meteorites show us a group called carbonaceous chondrites, containing a few percent of their mass in heavy hydrocarbon molecules.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br />
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<span style="color: red; font-size: x-large;">The Hydrocarbon Association with Helium and with Biological Materials</span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br />
</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> When it was widely believed that natural petroleum had derived from very large deposits of plant and animal debris in the sedimentary cover of the crust, this seemed to provide the explanation for the existence of many specifically biological molecules found in all the oils. But not only biological molecules show a strong association with hydrocarbons, the noble gas helium is also seen closely associated with hydrocarbons all over the world. All commercial helium is produced from oil and gas wells. Although the literature contains hundreds of examples of this association, no mechanism has been suggested that would explain how it could have arisen. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> Helium, being chemically quite inert, could not have been concentrated by plants or by any chemical action. This association of hydrocarbons with helium and with biological molecules is seen not only in major oil and gas fields, but also in the seepage of gases in many locations on the Earth's surface. Why would helium come up preferentially in petroleum-bearing zones? </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> The only possibility for concentrating helium is a purely mechanical action, a pump. Some pumping action must have driven helium specifically to the hydrocarbons area. But why and how? </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> The only solution to this puzzle that I have been able to see, would require a very deep origin of the hydrocarbons, a depth of 100 kilometers or more, where the temperature and pressure would liquefy some components of the solid hydrocarbons that were present in the building materials of the Earth. Buoyancy forces relative to the higher density rocks would drive these liquids upwards. On their long pathways through the fractures in the rocks, caused and held open by the fluid pressure, they would force up helium atoms that constantly accumulate from the radioactive decay of the widely distributed radioactive elements uranium and thorium. This pumping action enriches the hydrocarbons with helium. If hydrocarbons are the most abundant fluids coming up from great depths, then they would be the ones that pump up the most helium. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> But if the hydrocarbons come from great depth, they will not be of biological origin (just as they are not of biological origin on the other planetary bodies mentioned). The explanation of the biological molecules as coming from plant debris is then not valid. How then can the presence of biological molecules found in all oils be explained? </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> The only way I could see of solving this puzzle was to suggest that a widespread microbiology exists down to moderate depths, including the depths of all oil wells (a depth of about 8 km). Such microbiology could provide the oils with all the biological molecules that are seen; in fact several of them can only be produced by microbiology. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> The viewpoint that the main components of petroleum formed at depth and without the intervention of biology, from materials incorporated in the Earth at its formation, has been vigorously pursued in Russia [Soviet Union] since the days of Mendeleev, who wrote an important paper on the analysis of petroleum and concluded that it all came from deep down in the Earth. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> Several hundred publications exist that support this viewpoint, some indeed present strong evidence for it. Sir Robert Robinson, a Nobel Laureate, made detailed studies of natural petroleum, and he concluded: </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> Actually it cannot be too strongly emphasized that petroleum does not present the composition picture expected from modified biogenic products, and all the arguments from the constituents of ancient oils fit equally well, or better, with the conception of a primordial hydrocarbon mixture to which bio-products have been added. (1963) </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> "A primordial hydrocarbon mixture to which bio-products have been added" is a good summary of the position presented here. If there was much microbial life below, and a good food supply for it, then this might have far-reaching consequences, not only for petroleum geology but also for many aspects of the evolution of the crust, and possibly for biology and the evolution of life. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> These considerations prompted me to write the paper: "THE DEEP, HOT BIOSPHERE", (Proc Nat. Ac. Sci. July 1992). The microbial life forms involved must then be hyperthermophilic, living at temperatures up to 120°C, possibly as much as 150°C. And the quantities, in terms of mass or volume, would have to be comparable with all the surface life we know. This would solve the sharp paradox that had split petroleum geology into two camps and had stymied progress of the discussion of the origin of petroleum for many decades.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br />
</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="color: blue; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: x-large; font-weight: bold;">What Energy Sources Would There be for Such Life? </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br />
</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> Microbial life could only flourish if there was a supply of the element carbon and a chemical energy source, a "food" for them. The heat that surrounds each microbe can supply no energy; energy can be derived only from the flow of heat from a hot body to a colder one, and the microbes in the rocks are far too small for any temperature differences across their bodies to arise. ("You can sit in a hot tub as much as you like, but you will still need to eat.") Hydrocarbons are a chemical energy source, but only in the presence of oxygen, so that it becomes possible for the microbiology to mediate the energy-giving process of oxidizing them. On the surface of the Earth this is easy, the atmosphere provides virtually unlimited amounts of free oxygen. But where is the oxygen deep down in the pores of the rocks where we find oil? </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> The rocks contain oxygen in abundance, only most of it is bound too tightly, and it would take more energy to free this oxygen than could be obtained by the oxidation of the hydrocarbons. There are just a few commonly occurring substances in the rocks that have sufficiently loosely bound oxygen to allow the oxidation of hydrocarbons to be an energy source. Highly oxidized iron is one of them, sulfates (oxidized sulfur compounds) are another. Microorganisms can then feed on the combination of hydrocarbons with some oxygen they can take off these substances. One must then expect to see the accumulation at least of the solid end- products of some or all of these processes in hydrocarbon-rich areas.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br />
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<span style="color: blue; font-size: x-large;">Search for Life on Other Planetary Bodies</span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br />
</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> The search for sub-surface life on other planetary solid bodies such as the Moon, Mars, and many asteroids and satellites of the major planets, will now become a high priority item in planetary research. The surface conditions on the other solid planetary bodies are all quite different from those we have here, where the conditions are remarkably favorable for the development of surface life. But the sub-surface conditions will be similar to ours on most of these bodies, though depth dependence of pressure and temperature will be different. The possibility of developing life in them may then be not too different from the circumstances here. Hydrocarbons on them are known, and sub-surface liquid water can be expected on many of them. The rocks will contain some oxidized components that will serve as oxygen donors. The scene would be set for the existence of microbiology there. The recommendations I made specifically for Mars (in the paper mentioned above) included the search for evidence of microbial life in the carbonaceous Martian meteorites that had been found in Antarctica (a search that is still in progress now). For future interplanetary missions that could return a sample back to Earth, I thought that it would be best to go to locations where material is exposed now, that must once have been at some depth. The outstanding case is the floor of the deep "Vallis Marineris," where massive landslides have exposed material that must once have been at a depth well into the liquid water domain.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br />
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</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="color: blue; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: x-large; font-weight: bold;">What are the Solid Products of this Microbial Activity?</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br />
</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">The liquid or gaseous products will generally escape in short times and would not be maintained in a small meteorite on a long space flight. Where iron oxides served as the oxygen donors, the end product will be iron in a less oxidized state in which it is magnetic. Magnetite is the most common form. A further removal of oxygen, such as the step to metallic iron, requires more energy than is available in the reaction. Where sulfur oxides were the oxygen donors, one must expect to see just sulfur or unoxidized sulfur compounds such as hydrogen sulfide or metal sulfides. The product of the oxidation of the hydrocarbons will be carbon dioxide and water, and in many rocks this will react with oxides of calcium or magnesium to make solid carbonates. Those are the carbonate cements that fill up small pore spaces, and must have been transported by a liquid before precipitating.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br />
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<span style="color: blue; font-size: x-large;">Hydrocarbon-rich Areas on Earth</span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br />
</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> Magnetite and sulfur or metal sulfides are often seen in great concentration in hydrocarbon-rich areas on Earth, as are carbonate cements that fills cracks and pore spaces in the rocks. The isotopic composition of their carbon suggests that the ultimate derivation was from the oxidation of methane. The clearest example of this of which I am aware (but not the first) was the discovery of many tons of highly concentrated grains of magnetite, together with isotopically anomalous carbonate cements and with crude oil, all at great depth in two boreholes in Sweden. From these same boreholes and depths, previously unknown microbes were sampled and successfully cultured by the Swedish National Bacteriological Laboratory. These microbes could be cultured only in the circumstances that prevailed at the depth from which they were collected, namely a temperature of around 60°C and an absence of free oxygen, making a contamination by surface microbes very improbable. By now many locations are known in which oil, magnetic iron compounds, sulfides, and carbonate cements are found together. In regions not bearing hydrocarbons, a close association of these three solids is not common.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br />
</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="color: blue; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: x-large; font-weight: bold;">Sub-surface Life on Mars Discovered?</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br />
</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> Microbial life on Mars could be dependent on the same processes as we have discussed for sub-surface life here. Highly oxidized iron is abundant on Mars, and very small-grained magnetite can then be expected to be one of the accumulated residues of microbial processes; so can iron sulfide and methane-derived carbonates. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons are the large molecules that might remain in a rock that originally contained crude oil but then was exposed for millions of years to the high vacuum of space. All these substances have been found in the discovery meteorite, closely packaged to each other, and this by itself would make a strong case for the microbial interpretation. In addition, there are small objects seen under scanning electron microscopy that may well be fossils of microbes. While the last item by itself would not be conclusive evidence, the combination of this together with oil and the three residue products make a strong case for the microbial explanation. It is true that each step can occur without biological intervention, but the chance of finding by chance the evidence for all three solids in a small volume, together with hydrocarbons, seems to be very low. Many terrestrial oil and gas wells show just such an association (but an association with helium also, which the meteorite could not have transported through space).</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br />
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<span style="color: blue; font-size: x-large;">Past Life Fed by Photosynthesis on Mars?</span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br />
</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> A planetary surface without photosynthesis is in any case inhospitable for life. It is only the immense energy supply that photosynthesis provides here that may favor surface life over chemically fed life at depth. In all other respects such as radiation environment, temperature variation, and evaporation of liquids, the surface is less hospitable than the sub-surface. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> It does not seem probable that Mars ever had surface life based on the energy supply of photosynthesis. Not only would a temperature regime be required that would maintain liquid water on the surface, but also a sufficient atmospheric pressure would be needed to prevent rapid evaporation of water and subsequent deposition as ice at the poles. The atmosphere would also have to be such as to prevent the continual loss of water, through dissociation by sunlight and the subsequent loss of hydrogen to space. A substantial atmosphere would also be required to protect the surface from the destructive ionizing radiations from the Sun and from space, more so because of the absence of a protective magnetic field. The small force of gravity on Mars is not likely to have maintained a sufficiently massive atmosphere that would satisfy all these requirements.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br />
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<span style="color: blue; font-size: x-large;">Origin of Life: Many Independent Beginnings or Panspermia?</span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br />
</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">Does microbial life evolve spontaneously in all locations that are favorable (reminiscent of pre-Pasteur views, but with an enormously longer evolutionary time scale)? Have all such independent origins of life a similar basic chemistry? Is panspermia, the transportation of living systems between different host bodies, a real possibility? These will be the important questions. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> If on another planetary body we were to find a type of biology that used quite different basic steps of chemistry, outside the range of the variants we have observed here, then we would judge this to represent an independent origin (though even then not with complete certainty). We would then be led to believe that some variants of life arise with high probability in many other favorable locations. But if we saw life forms with a similar basic chemistry, could we then make a distinction between panspermia and a very closely parallel evolution? Perhaps our chemistry is the only one that could work to make functional organisms, so no other would be found; or perhaps ours is one of a small number of possible ones, and for this reason would be likely to be discovered elsewhere.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br />
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</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="color: blue; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: x-large; font-weight: bold;">The Significance of Chirality or "Mirror Symmetry"</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br />
</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> But even in the cases of a similar chemistry, there would still be a possibility of deciding between parallel evolution from independent beginnings, and a distribution of life from one source, such as panspermia would provide. This arises from the property of "chirality," the symmetry that the right hand has to the left hand, or that a right-handed screw has to a left-handed one. Chirality implies that an object is different from its mirror image, no matter from which side you look at it. (Remember, a right-handed screw is a right-handed screw from whichever side you look at it; but it is seen as a left-handed screw in a mirror.) Two-dimensional objects do not posses chirality; the outline of the right hand drawn on a sheet of paper will become the outline of the left hand if observed from the other side of the paper. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> In chemistry, molecules can possess chirality if they are composed of four or more atoms. To visualize this, consider first three atoms, positioned at the corners of a triangle of three unequal sides. This is necessarily a two dimensional object and cannot possess chirality; it will look like its mirror image when it is turned over. But if a fourth point is added, out of the plane of the triangle, and identified by being (say) farther from any of the three points than these are from each other, then the object possesses chirality: No direction of viewing can make it look like its mirror image. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> Chirality assumes a particular importance in relation to biology. While there are many chiral molecules in inanimate matter, in each case the two forms are present in equal numbers to within random statistical expectation. Inanimate chemistry has no preference for the right-handed or the left-handed form of any molecule. All chemical processes will be accurately the same in any grouping of different chiral molecules, as they would be for another such grouping of the same molecules, but with each of the first set replaced by its chiral opposite. Now, it is a remarkable fact that in all terrestrial biology the molecules that are concerned with the basic steps of genetics and that determine the construction of next generation of the organism, represent a choice of one chirality over the opposite one. For example, if you were to select any one of the chiral amino acid molecules that make up proteins, it will show the same chirality, whether it comes from a microbe, an insect, a fish, a plant or an elephant. The usual explanation for this is that there is a common origin of all terrestrial biology; the first beginnings involved an even chance for the choice of the chirality, but after that all that followed in all of evolution continued in that same pattern. Possibly this is the right explanation, but many scientists, including the great chemist Linus Pauling, have expressed doubts whether a single beginning could have enforced such a strict rule throughout all the diverse branches of evolution that followed. Perhaps genetic material is transferred occasionally between different species, so that there is much more interaction and more coherency in the evolution of the different species than we have yet recognized. If such interaction is beneficial to one or other of the species, this would tend to enforce a common pattern. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> But whatever the correct explanation may be for this remarkable fact, we clearly have a large example in front of us. For this reason we will be inclined to attribute any observation of a large asymmetry (non-racemic chiral substances) of this nature that we might find on another planetary body as arising also from living systems. The search for such an effect will be one aspect of the search for life on other bodies. Transparent liquids like water or oils have been very useful for finding biological materials, even in small concentrations, since any such asymmetry causes plane polarized light to suffer a rotation of its plane of polarization, with the sense of this rotation depending on the sense of the chiral molecule involved. In the absence of biological materials no such rotation has been found. Liquids, or liquids derived from their frozen forms such as ices or bitumens, can be examined for any asymmetry in the content of chiral molecules. Possibly the massive ice covers of several satellites of major planets are good candidates for such an examination. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> But the examination of chirality also offers the possibility of distinguishing between an origin of life that is common with ours and one that derived from an independent beginning. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> If we found the same basic chemistry in biological molecules of another planetary body as the one we have here, we would investigate whether the molecules there had the same chirality as ours. If they had the opposite one, we would immediately know a lot more: We would then conclude that life, using the same basic chemistry, had a good probability of arising independently on other bodies that had similar sub-surface conditions as our planet. If, however, we found the same chirality there, all we could say is that they might derive from the same evolution as ours, or that an independent origin favoring the same basic chemistry, had hit (with a 50-50 chance) on the same chirality as ours. Panspermia could be responsible, but we could not know for sure. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> If we repeated such observations on yet another planetary body and obtained the same result, we would conclude that the probability was beginning to point towards a common origin, since an independent origin would have given a chance of only one in four of providing the same sense in three independent cases. The investigations of yet more planetary bodies would then become essential for resolving the issue.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br />
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<span style="color: blue; font-size: x-large;">Galactic Panspermia?</span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br />
</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> Are there bodies of planetary sizes that exist in abundance in the spaces between the stars? We would not have discovered them even if they were so numerous that their combined masses were an appreciable fraction of the total masses of all the stars. Molecular clouds may well be forming such objects constantly , and only a fraction would come to be associated with a star. Perhaps the frequent motion of such objects through the outer reaches of our solar system are the causes of the large perturbations that comets seem to suffer, and that bring them occasionally into the inner part of the solar system where they become evident to us. Such objects could contain and maintain for billions of years an active internal microbial life, just as seems to be the case on the Earth. Panspermia across galactic distances would then be a possibility, through impacts spalling off pieces like our Martian meteorite, when such an object had come, perchance, into the vicinity of a planetary system. In this case there would be no dependence on dormant life for long periods, nor on any long term resistance to the damage of cosmic rays, two problems that have made other galactic scale panspermia proposals seem improbable.</span></div><div style="color: red; text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br />
</span></div><div style="color: red; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: x-large; font-weight: bold;">The Origin of Life</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br />
</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> From the investigation of microbial life on other bodies of our solar system we may then be able to come closer to an answer to the basic questions of the origin of life. The microbes that are able to withstand the highest temperatures, and that therefore can live at the deepest levels, are found to be a very early type, judged by their genetic make-up. This may suggest that their early appearance and the evolution following them occurred underground, in the favorable circumstances of having a constant food supply, no problems of temperature changes, no radiation hazards, and minimal difficulty resulting from the evaporation of water. The deep life seems to be the best candidate for the early evolution. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: large;"> It has been said that "nature abhors a vacuum." But what nature also abhors is free energy. All of biology is just a device for degrading energy available from chemical sources, and on the surface from the great temperature differential between the hot surface of the Sun and the cold of space. Perhaps biology is just a branch of thermodynamics, and there is no sudden beginning of life, but a gradual systematic development towards more and more efficient ways of degrading energy. The step to photosynthesis was no doubt a difficult one to achieve, and much evolution must have preceded it. The chemical energy available in a planetary body is then most likely to have been the first energy source, and surface creatures like the elephants and the tigers and humans and all, feeding indirectly on solar energy, are just a specific adaptation of that life to the strangely favorable circumstances on the surface of our plane</span>t.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br />
</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large; font-weight: bold;">Bibliography</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br />
</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Gold, T. 1993. The origin of methane in the crust of the Earth. In: The Future of Energy Gases, D. G. Howell (Ed.). USGS Professional Paper 1570. US Government Printing Office, Washington, 890 p. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Gold, T. 1992. The deep, hot biosphere. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 89:6045-6049. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">McKay, D.S, et al. 1996. Search for past life on Mars: Possible relic biogenic activity in martian meteorite ALH84001. Science 273:924-930. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Nikonov, V.F. 1969. Relation of helium to petroleum hydrocarbons. Dokl. Akad. Nauk SSSR, Earth Sci. Sect. 188:199-201. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Wright, I.P., M.M. Grady, and C.T. Pillinger. 1989. Organic materials in a martian meteorite. Nature 340:220-222. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br />
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<span style="color: red; font-size: x-large;">Metal Ores and Hydrocarbons </span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"><b>Thomas Gold</b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">June 1994 </span></b></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> The association of various metal ore deposits with hydrocarbons is a vast subject, but as yet very few people have worked on it. Many such associations have been seen, but as people did not recognize the possibility that hydrocarbons could come up from great depth, they could not see any reason for these effects. And people do not write papers to say they do not understand what they see. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> The general problems about concentrated mineral deposits are the following: </span><br />
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</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">1.) The Earth formed by the collection of solids, mostly small grains, that had the elements pretty much mixed up. There may have been some layers that had a little more of this or that, but except for iron and nickel, there were no "clean" substances in this infall. We judge this from the great array of meteorites which are samples of the various contributions the Earth received. Many detailed trace element and isotope ratios show that this is true.</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">What processes would single out a particular element and cause a deposition in a location which represents a concentration by a factor of one million or more from the original mix? A fluid that moved through a large amount of the mix, and picked up in solution the particular substance, and then shed it from solution as a result of changing circumstances such as temperature, pressure, ph, or the picking up into the solution of another substance that decreased the solubility of the first. All attempts at explanation assume processes of this kind and this seems inevitable. Water is generally considered the basic fluid, usually with aggressive contaminants like salts. But when it comes to the arithmetic of these processes, there is frequently serious trouble. Many metals , especially the heavy metals, are just not sufficiently soluble in brines. or in any aqueous fluids. The excerpt from Krauskopf (appended here) refers to this difficulty. Many other authors have also noted it. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">In my view hydrocarbons come towards the surface from depths between 150 and 300 km. They therefore leach through a very large amount of rock as they are driven up by buoyancy forces. Effective leaching requires powerful pumping action to drive fluids though fine pores and for a large distance: fluids coming up from great depth have of course this advantage. By comparison surface waters running through some crustal rocks have an incomparably smaller driving force. The leaching has to be due to fluids that originate at depth, because only those have the pressure differentials that are required for effective leaching. </span><br />
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</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">2.) Which fluids have the capability to take into solution such substances as heavy metals or metal compounds? </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">At high pressures and temperatures many metals will form organometallics, that means molecules that combine metal atoms with such elements as carbon and hydrogen, possibly with some nitrogen and oxygen also. Most organometallic compounds are soluble in hydrocarbon oils. Such oils, being forced through the rocks, will have a chance to combine with metals in the rocks to make organometallic compounds. In turn those that are soluble in the oils can then be transported by that same flow. This will be so also for many metals that have very low solubilities in aqueous liquids. </span><br />
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</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">3.) What process can be so selective that it will deposit one metal ore in one location and another often nearby? What liquid stream will just leach out copper from the rocks, while another nearby stream will leach out zinc? Or why platinum here and gold there? </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">The hydrocarbon flow, on the way up, will make a large array of molecules, in detail depending on such things as the carbon-hydrogen ratio, the ratio to other elements like nitrogen and oxygen, the catalytic action of specific minerals in the rocks, and the pressure-temperature regime it finds on the way. Among those molecules may be a class that is particularly favourable for forming a particular organometallic compound with one metal, another class with another. The great diversity of hydrocarbon molecules is thus the reason for the selectivity in the metal deposits. Certain groups of metals occur in close association, presumably because there exists a hydrocarbon stream there, and similar hydrocarbons that were abundant in that location have selected that group because these respond similarly. Thus lead and zinc are found together, gold and silver, etc. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">When these metal-laden streams come nearer to the surface, and reach lower pressures and temperatures, many of the compounds become unstable (many carbon compounds are stable at a high pressure only, like diamond). Also bacterial action may destroy them, as the bacteria will preferentially remove the hydrocarbon components. In this way the naked metal atoms remain. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">The close association of gold with carbon is well recorded in the literature. Conventional wisdom gives no hint of an explanation either for the association with carbon, or even for the occurrence of metallic gold altogether. It seems that carbon is an essential component in the laying down of gold. The gold miners of olden days knew this very well, and followed the "black leader", a trail of carbon black that led frequently to a gold deposit. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">It is interesting that the other substance that is commonly associated with gold is silicon dioxide. Silicon is in the same column, two below carbon, in Mendeleev's table of the elements and it has very similar properties. It will form oils that are quite similar to hydrocarbon oils, but frequently with higher thermal stability. I do not know (and possibly no one knows) whether at high temperatures and pressures, it will form silicon-metallic compounds, analogous to organometallics. An argument in favour of this would be the occurrence of gold in quartz veins rather than in quartz deposits, suggesting a common migration path. Mercury, found as the sulfide cinnabar, is often together with oil and tar. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">Many metals will of course make sulfides, if sulfur is available. Thus mercury may come up in a gas stream as mercury vapor or as dimethyl-mercury, but have enough sulfur to be turned into cinnabar. It is the same for many other metals, they would not resist being turned into the sulfide. For mercury it is particularly clear that it has come from great depths, as it is strongly associated with helium, in particular with helium high in helium-3, which is the marker for primordial helium, caught in the formation process of the Earth, and not merely derived from the radioactivity of uranium and thorium. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">In the drilling in the Siljan Ring structure in Sweden, large quantities of magnetite were found. Some twelve tons of a mix of very fine grained magnetite and natural petroleum were pumped up from one wellbore, and some kilograms of a similar paste were pulled up on the drillstring in a second hole. At the deeper levels, below 5 km, the magnetite paste impeded the drilling operation in both holes. It appears that it was this same paste that prevented any substantial inflow into the wellbores, necessary for any commercial production. Investigations by laboratories including that of the Danish Geological Survey, showed the oil to be an ordinary type of crude, somewhat biodegraded. In the second hole no drilling fluids were introduced that could possibly have resulted in the oils seen. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">The origin of such clean, concentrated magnetite and its very small grain size, much of it in the micron size range, certainly present a puzzle. Moreover the entire Siljan Ring structure displayed a positive magnetic anomaly, quite accurately centered in the ring. It therefore seems very likely that this same magnetite paste was the source for the magnetic anomaly, and that it was present in sufficiently large amount to account for it. If this is considered a possibility, then one may well wonder whether the various other large magnetite deposits of Sweden have a similar origin. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">The only clues we have about the origin of the Siljan magnetite come from the detailed trace element and isotope observations of it. Neutron activation analysis (done by the Los Alamos National Laboratory) showed a substantially different admixture of trace elements from the local granite or the much larger magnetite grains in it. For example the paste magnetite contained only 1/30th of the amount of Mg-27 as the magnetic grains of the granite; 1/7th of the Na-24; but 100 times as much Zn-65 (there is a commercial zinc mine in the region); 10 times as much Ba-131 and Ba-139; less than 1/10th the amount of Nd-148. Several other equally large differences were found. It does not seem probable that any iron oxide in the local granite can be the origin of the magnetite paste: no processes are known that could have separated these elements so sharply. One may therefore consider the possibility that all this magnetite has been brought up as an organometallic from a totally different chemical domain such as the mantle. It would be most illuminating to analyze some of the other magnetite deposits of Sweden for similar anomalies. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">From Introduction to Geochemistry, Konrad B. Krauskopt, McGraw Hill, 1982, p. 395. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">This is similar to the question we tried to answer in the last section, as to the minimum concentration of metal in a magmatic gas that would be significant for the formation of ore deposits. We proceed in the same way, using rough numbers to establish a limit of reasonableness. Suppose, for example, that an ore solution carried 10-7 g/liter of zinc. To deposit 1 ton of metal would require a minimum of 1010 cubic meters of solution, approximately the volume of water carried to the sea each year by the Hudson River (average flow approximately 10,000 sec-ft). Such a solution traversing a vein at a rate of 10 ft3/sec could deposit 1 ton of zinc in a thousand years, provided that all the dissolved zinc precipitates. The amount of water and the amount of time seem excessive, by comparison with scanty data on the flow of hot springs and on the geologic times required for the formation of ore bodies. Thus 10-7 g/liter can be taken as an absolute minimum, below which the concentration of metal is too small to be of interest. For most purposes a somewhat larger figure, say 10-5 g/liter, is a more reasonable minimum. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">By this criterion the solubility of ZnS is barely high enough to be of interest at a temperature of 200° and a pH as low as 5. The calculated solubilities of the sulfides of some other common metals (Mn, Fe, Co, Pb) have a similar order of the amounts of metal that can be carried by hot sulfide solutions seem far too small, except for a few metals under the most favorable assumed conditions, to account for the origin of ore deposits. This is the long-standing difficulty with the classical hydrothermal hypothesis.</span><br />
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<div><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-weight: bold;"><span style="color: red; font-size: x-large;">A natural phenomenon that may pose a severe aircraft hazard?</span></span></div><div><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br />
</span></div><div><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> There have been many serious aircraft accidents in recent years that have not had a satisfactory explanation despite exhaustive researches, and that have certain features in common. Those features include apparently a situation of extreme urgency and danger, so that there was no time for the flight crew to communicate details to the flight controllers; in some cases there were circumstances that seemed quite unexpected and perplexing to the flight crew, suggesting an urgent need to override the usual automated control systems and manually put the plane into a steep dive. In several cases this was followed by actions to avoid excessive speed that would threaten the structural integrity of the aircraft. Several accidents have another feature in common: they occurred along the edge of the North-Eastern American continental shelf. These include, among others, TW 800 on July 17, 1996, Swissair 111 on September 2, 1998, Egypt Air 990 on October 1999, and also the crash of J. F. Kennedy Jr. The case of the EgyptAir crash has recently come under public debate again as some new information has become known, and the explanation tentatively offered by the National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB), suggesting a suicide attempt by a co-pilot, has come under strong attack by Egyptian authorities, and does not fit with the new information.</span></div><div><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"><br />
</span></div><div><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> In view of the statistically quite improbable occurrence of these accidents, it seems prudent now to widen the search to causes that have so far not been included among possible aircraft hazards, and that have possibly a relationship to geographical features. Among such, the massive emission of gases from the seafloor (or land surface) seems to us most worthy of attention.</span></div><div><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"><br />
</span></div><div><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> Massive sudden eruptions of gases have occurred in many locations, bursting up through the ground both from ocean floors and from dry land. They often occur repetitively in the same area, and on land create what is known as "mud volcanoes". The amounts of expelled material accumulated in some mud volcanoes in the last million years are as large as 10 or 20 billion tons, and the estimates of the amounts of gas responsible are several times larger than that. The erupting gases are usually dominated by methane. Since methane is lighter than air, it races upwards at high speed. Many cases are known where the gas spontaneously ignited, and flames to a height of 6,000 ft have been photographed from Baku, in the active mud volcano area on the West shore of the Caspian Sea. Much higher brief flashes have been reported, up to 30,000 ft but these were too brief to be photographed. Massive flammable gas eruptions at or near times of earthquakes (before, during or after) are reported in historical and in recent times from many parts of the world.</span></div><div><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> Similar eruptions are indicated on the sea floors, where large areas are densely covered with "pockmarks", quite characteristic circular features in the ocean mud, with diameters of between 10 and 200 meters. These features were first detected in the North Sea by Dr. Martin Hovland, of Statoil, (the Norwegian oil company), overlying known gas and oil fields. Similar fields have since been detected in many parts of the world by sonar, again often showing a relation to underlying hydrocarbon fields, and also there showing features of repetition of outbursts, with methane again the major component. Both in mud volcanoes and in pockmark fields the emitted quantities of gas in any single event may well amount to some millions of tons.</span></div><div><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"><br />
</span></div><div><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> Another set of observations has now to be added: it is the occurrence of "mystery clouds" in the air. Satellite photography over a ten year period revealed more than two hundred clouds that rose up at a high speed from a small area of land or sea, forming an expanding funnel. Temperature observations showed a much lower temperature in the funnel cloud than in the outside air at the same height, and this implied that the rising gas must be one that is intrinsically much lighter than air. Only methane and hydrogen are candidates, and both are combustible. The largest such cloud on record was seen and reported by several airline pilots flying between Tokyo and Alaska, North-East of Japan, on April 9, 1984. They described it as a mushroom cloud that reached up to 50,000 ft, attaining a diameter of more than 200 miles.</span></div><div><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"><br />
</span></div><div><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> Evidence of massive gas emissions have recently been reported by the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute, who conducted a sonar survey of the mid-Atlantic US continental shelf edge. Along a major fault line they found many and very large pockmarks, similar to those described by Dr. Hovland, indicating that sudden almost explosive gas eruptions had taken place there. Also recent reports from the Province of Quebec, of frequent and large displays of lights in the sky, clearly related to the swarm of earthquakes between November 1988 and end of January 1989 in the region of Sanguenay and Quebec City, leave little doubt that massive gas eruptions occurred there, with some flames reaching high into the sky. Altogether 46 such sightings were recorded in that period, some but not all coincident with earthquake shocks. Earthquake-related lights have been well known and reported since antiquity, and indeed one very large event involving gas flames was reported in 1663, not far from the Sanguenay region, close to the St.Lawrence River.</span></div><div><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"><br />
</span></div><div><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> I had investigated in 1982 a "near disaster" of a British Airways 747 plane flying at 37,000 ft over a volcanic region of Java. All four engines stopped shortly after it had entered a visible but tenuous volcanic cloud. After gliding down to 15,000 ft without power, and there apparently leaving the cloud, all engines could be started again immediately. The same sequence of events was experienced two weeks later by an Air Singapore 747 plane over a nearby region, and many years later by a KLM flight over the Aleutian Islands. A gas lighter than air, and hence combustible, must have been responsible in all three cases, to have carried small volcanic dust grains to these altitudes, and its combustion may have been responsible for the engine failures that were so sharply limited to the flight within the cloud, probably due to the fuel- rich and oxygen poor mixtures of the gas adding to the airplane fuel. Gas eruptions of volcanoes are known of either kind: eruptions of a ground-hugging heavy gas identified as carbon dioxide, but also eruptions of a light and flammable gas, probably methane, whose density is a little more than half that of air.</span></div><div><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"><br />
</span></div><div><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> With three large planes having come so close to disaster, but yet able to give a precise account of the events, one has to take the threat of gas emission seriously. The belief that such emissions can come only from volcanoes has been voiced, but is clearly wrong in view of the facts already mentioned. What threats would massive gas emissions pose for aircraft?</span></div><div><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"><br />
</span></div><div><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> One effect I have already described: the possibility of inducing failure of all engines. But several other aircraft hazards have also to be considered. One is due to the great upward speed the light gases would have, greatly in excess of the vertical speeds in ordinary atmospheric turbulence, and structural damage to the plane or serious injuries to persons may result from the ensuing violent vertical movement. The ignition and explosion of a large mass of gas external to the plane may be initiated by the engine exhausts and may be violently destructive, yet the recovered airplane skin would not show the shrapnel holes that would be the usual signs of explosions.</span></div><div><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"><br />
</span></div><div><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> Other consequences of gas emissions are the dangerous and misleading indications that the flight instruments would provide. Air speed indicators and air pressure altimeters would give quite false and fluctuating readings. The autopilots, programmed for air, may have totally erroneous responses in the light gas, as indeed may the pilots themselves, who would be perplexed by a situation they had never encountered or contemplated before.</span></div><div><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"><br />
</span></div><div><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> A further hazard is that clouds of low density gas may not support a plane, even at a flying speed that would be amply high enough in air. This would cause a stall of the aircraft, or be preceded by automatic stall-warning that requires the pilot to turn the nose down into a dive, and then confront the danger of excessive speed.</span></div><div><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"><br />
</span></div><div><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> Then there are the various fire hazards resulting from combustible air-gas mixtures, especially in some confined spaces in the airplane where flames could be supported, even if the same gas-air mixture would readily be extinguished in the external high speed airflow. That danger may be highest in cable ducts where damage could destroy the airplane control system.</span></div><div><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"><br />
</span></div><div><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> The North-Eastern coastline or edge of the continental shelf of the US and Canada, is the northward continuation of the line whose investigation I have already mentioned. This extension also has a history of earthquakes and gas emission from sand beaches and water surfaces beyond the shoreline. Such emissions had not ceased around the times of the aircraft disasters. A large number of reports were phoned in to police and emergency services in New Brunswick and Nova Scotia on October 27, about three days before the Egypt Air crash, stating that at 9:30 p.m. a large fireball had been seen streaking across the night sky. The details reported did not correspond to a meteorite, but included reports of flames and events much slower than those caused by meteors. A peak in the number of reports recorded prior to an event must be taken seriously, if the number greatly exceeds the number on other days, as was the case here. There were similar reports also before and after the TW 800 crash. There was also a report from Swiss Air 111 of a strange smell about three minutes before the declaration of emergency. This is particularly suggestive of gas effects, as a similar report was made in one of the near accidents over Java, where gas certainly was involved.</span></div><div><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"><br />
</span></div><div><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> We may then wish to investigate whether some features of aircraft disasters along this region, the four disasters mentioned and several others that have also occurred along this corridor, could have an explanation in terms of the list of hazards I have mentioned, or others that have not yet been considered, that could be attributed to gas eruptions.</span></div><div><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"><br />
</span></div><div><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> Mr. Jack Reed retired from the Sandia National Laboratory, an expert in sound propagation, has noted that the "loud" boom heard by many eye witnesses at the time of the TW 800 crash on a 25 mile stretch of Long Island, nearest point to the plane 15 miles away, was far too loud to have been caused by the proposed explosion of the empty central fuel tank. In his view a one ton bomb of TNT would have been the least required to make such a sound at that distance. Nor would such an explosion have caused the various external luminous phenomena that have been reported by many. Also it is doubtful that an explosion of such a small amount of fuel vapor could have had the power to tear off the entire front section of the fuselage. The absence of shrapnel holes in the recovered skin of TW 800 was taken to exclude a bomb explosion inside or outside the plane. However, a massive external gas explosion would produce no shrapnel.</span></div><div><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"><br />
</span></div><div><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> The facts newly announced about the EgyptAir disaster make clear that a deliberate dive had seemed imperative to the pilot then at the controls, and that a dangerous overspeed situation had then arisen. After a brief recovery to level flight, again a dive seemed imperative, and the overspeed may then have destroyed the plane.</span></div><div><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"><br />
</span></div><div><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> There are many steps that can be taken to find whether the sequence of disasters along this heavily traveled corridor may be due to gas emissions. As an immediate step I urge the continuation of the sonar search for pockmarks on the ocean floor along this coastline in the regions of the four disasters mentioned and others that occurred near this geographical line, since this will have a good chance of showing whether these accidents were indeed over locations at which strong gas outbursts had occurred. A routing change may then be indicated as the first step to avoid further disasters.</span></div><div><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"><br />
</span></div><div><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">Thomas Gold</span></div><div><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"><br />
</span></div><div><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">Professor Emeritus</span></div><div><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"><br />
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<span style="color: red; font-size: x-large;">Recharging of oil and gas fields</span></span></div><div><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br />
</span></div><div><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> There have been numerous reports in recent times, of oil and gas fields not running out at the expected time, but instead showing a higher content of hydrocarbons after they had already produced more than the initially estimated amount. This has been seen in the Middle East, in the deep gas wells of Oklahoma, on the Gulf of Mexico coast, and in other places. It is this apparent refilling during production that has been responsible for the series of gross underestimate of reserves that have been published time and again, the most memorable being the one in the early seventies that firmly predicted the end of oil and gas globally by 1987, a prediction which produced an energy crisis and with that a huge shift in the wealth of nations. Refilling is an item of the greatest economic significance, and also a key to understanding what the sources of all this petroleum had been. It is also of practical engineering importance, since we may be able to exercise some control over the refilling process.</span></div><div><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> The debate about the origin of all the petroleum on Earth lies in the center of the subject. If we really knew that it is only biological materials, which, in their decay, could produce hydrocarbons, then the quanities that could ever be produced would be limited by the biological content of the sediments. But then the clear and strong association of petroleum with the inert gas helium would have no explanation; the finding of hydrocarbon gases, liquids and solids on most other planetary bodies in our solar system which have surface conditions quite unsuitable for surface life, could not be understood; the presence of hydrocarbons which we now find in abundance in basement rocks would also remained unexplained.</span></div><div><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> If we accept the fact, now known full well, that hydrocarbons are a common constituent of the cosmos and the planetary condensations that formed in it, then we have a totally different viewpoint. Hydrocarbons are stable down to great depths and the high temperatures there, contrary to many statements that have been made that the temperature reached at depths between 30,000 and 40,000 ft would dissociate most of the hydrocarbons. But these calculations are seriously in error, because they ignored the strong stabilizing effect of pressure at depth, that had been calculated by Soviet (Ukrainian and Russian) thermodynamicists.</span></div><div><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> The existence of diamonds, crystals of pure carbon that form at pressures which are not reached on earth at depths of less than 140 kilometers, proves that unoxidized carbon exists at such depths, and also carbon-bearing liquids must flow there that can deposit carbon at high purity. High pressure fluid inclusions in diamonds prove that liquid or gaseous hydrocarbons were present at their formation. Present day meteorites give us examples of the solids responsible for the building up of the Earth; among those only one class, the carbonaceous chondrites, contain much carbon, mostly in unoxidized form. That this material is present in the Earth's interior in large abundance is shown by the distribution of noble gases and their isotopes that have emerged into our atmosphere and show distributions that are strikingly similar to those in carbonaceous chondrites, but dissimilar to those of any other class of meteorites. The presence of this type of material would account for a continuous supply of hydrocarbons to the atmosphere, as the outer layers of the mantle heat up over time and make fluids form from the solid hydrocarbons that were included in the forming Earth (as also in most of the other planets and their satellites, in the asteroids, comets and interplanetary dust grains). Such fluids are less dense than the rocks, and buoyancy forces will propel them upwards.</span></div><div><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> Rocks and lower density fluids can co-exist at any level in a solid planetary body, provided that the pressure of the pore fluids is sufficiently high to make the differential pressure between rocks and fluids less than the crushing strength of the rocks. For a static case (with no upward flow of the fluid), this would result in pressure domains, within which the fluid pressure shows a pressure gradient with depth given just by the density of the fluid (the "head"), and where the bottom of each domain is at the level at which the fluid pressure is insufficient to maintain pore spaces against the higher pressure of the rock. (See Figure 1.) It is assumed here (for the static case) that this makes a complete barrier. As for the top of any domain, this cannot be at a level higher than that at which the fluid pressure equals the rock pressure, since fluid pressures in excess of this value cannot be maintained in rocks that on a large scale and in long time-intervals, have no tensile strength and therefore cannot resist the intrusion of the fluids and the generation of new pores.</span></div><div><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> If we consider the case of a slow upward migration of fluids (liquids or gases), then this picture changes to one in which each domain</span></div><div><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"><br />
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</span></div><div><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">Idealized stacked pore pressure domains that make up a stepwise approximation to the rock pressure.</span></div><div><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">Pc is the critical pressure at which the pore fluid pressure cannot support the rock against crushing.</span></div><div><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"><br />
</span></div><div><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">will be stacked on another one below, all the way down to the level of origin of the fluid. The fluid pressure would thus make a stepwise approximation to the pressure in the rocks. Now none of the barriers can be absolute, since they would be torn open by the fluids that arise from deeper and higher pressured domains. But the barriers would be torn open in each case only to the point at which the flow to the overlying domain causes it to suffer a pressure drop resembling that of the static case. This rule will apply whatever the nature of the rock. The heights of the domains will be determined by the rock and fluid densities and the crushing strength of the rocks; this height has been found to be between 10,000 ft and 15,000 ft in many sedimentary rocks, and in excess of 20,000 ft in granitic basement rocks. The upward seepage of methane is very widespread all over the Earth, as is shown by the great extent of methane hydrates on the ocean floors and in permafrost regions on land, where mostly no shallow source of methane can be invoked.</span></div><div><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> Vertically stacked domains of hydrocarbons have been found in all cases where drilling was sufficient to display them. The consistent tendency to find hydrocarbons below any producing region has been given the name of "Koudyavtsev's Rule", after the important Russian petroleum investigator who discovered this effect and collected a very large number of examples of it from all parts of the world. This rule would be the consequence of a deep origin of hydrocarbons and a steady process of outgassing.</span></div><div><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> With this picture in mind we would readily understand that refilling of hydrocarbon fields is possible and even probable. But if merely the steady upward flow from deep sources had been responsible, the refilling time scales would be much too slow to be of commercial interest, or to match the speed that appears to have been observed. A limit to the global average of that flow speed can be derived from the approximately known supply of carbon to the atmosphere over time. On that basis a large gas field may be recharging in times reckoned in tens of thousands of years, still very short compared with many millions of years, as had been the widespread belief. But observed refill times of just a few tens of years cannot be explained by this. However another effect will set in when a field is under production and the pressure in its domain is thereby diminished. The pressure difference between the producing domain and the one below it will then be increased, resulting in a higher rate of flow through the low permeability layer that divides these domains, or it may even result in a physical rupture of that layer.</span></div><div><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> There is an analogous case known in Kuwait. The extraction of goundwater at the shallow levels results in the disintegration of the barrier to the oil levels just below, and the water in the wells is suddenly replaced by oil. The delicate pressure balance that had established itself, just up to the level that the strength of the rock could bear, had been upset. Similarly in stacked domains of hydrocarbons, the lower domains will be opened quickly, once the upper ones had been depleted and the fluid pressure thereby reduced sufficiently. This process can be fast, just as it is in Kuwait, where we had the advantage that a different liquid (water) filled the upper domain, so that one could identify the rupture to the oil filled domain below.</span></div><div><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> This type of refilling process thus allows exploitation of the domain below that from which production had been obtained before. In turn, when this lower domain had suffered a sufficient pressure loss, the process may continue to the next lower domain. How much more than the original content of a hydrocarbon field can be produced in any one case will depend on numerous details of the formation, but present indications are that it is often at least double. The present global gas and oil glut appears to be due to this effect, and we have not yet seen the end of it, or any indication that it will end soon. Gas fields will be subject to faster refilling than oil fields, and moreover the volumes of gas in lower domains will in general be greater due to the higher pressures there and the higher compressibility of gas. Gas will thus become more plentiful than oil for this reason alone, but gas seems to be generally more plentiful and more widespread than oil. The environmental advantages of changing from coal or oil to gas, by far the cleanest of all combustible fuels, are very large, and the changeover is at present still handicapped by the mistaken belief that the supplies of gas will run out soon.</span></div><div><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">Thomas Gold</span></div><div><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">September 1999</span></div></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br />
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</span></div><div style="color: red; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: x-large; font-weight: bold;">Thomas Gold (1920 – 2004)</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"><b><br />
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<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><iframe allowfullscreen='allowfullscreen' webkitallowfullscreen='webkitallowfullscreen' mozallowfullscreen='mozallowfullscreen' width='320' height='266' src='https://www.youtube.com/embed/lr42BP3wvOw?feature=player_embedded' frameborder='0'></iframe></span></div><br />
<h1 id="watch-headline-title" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; color: #333333; height: 1.1363em; line-height: 1.1363em; margin-bottom: 5px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; max-height: 1.1363em; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: center;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">Freeman Dyson on Tommy Gold, hearing mechanism, </span></h1><h1 id="watch-headline-title" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; color: #333333; height: 1.1363em; line-height: 1.1363em; margin-bottom: 5px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; max-height: 1.1363em; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: center;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">and abiogenic oil (video)</span></h1><div><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"><br />
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<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEixYXLHTMXpTw4auivDXUa__NuaMEavoShH-69SHtdq46fWNO4n0SJe0kjczJvoT9bmG8Xe4fgsjQHDy1zZDl-GMTi2-9NAHFAx_JqpwmMP4dHbpWcs_buwTKPSYmryAd2lNhh0/s1600/thomas+gold+1920-2004.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="400" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEixYXLHTMXpTw4auivDXUa__NuaMEavoShH-69SHtdq46fWNO4n0SJe0kjczJvoT9bmG8Xe4fgsjQHDy1zZDl-GMTi2-9NAHFAx_JqpwmMP4dHbpWcs_buwTKPSYmryAd2lNhh0/s400/thomas+gold+1920-2004.jpg" width="383" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif; font-weight: bold;">Thomas Gold (1920 -2004)</span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br />
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: large;">Biographical Information</span></b> </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">Professor Emeritus of Astronomy at Cornell University;</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">founder and for 20 years director of Cornell Center for Radiophysics and Space Research. </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">Fellow, Royal Society (London)</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">Member, National Academy of Sciences (US)</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">Member, American Academy of Arts and Sciences</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">Member, American Philosophical Society</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">Fellow, American Geophysical Union</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">Honorary Fellow, Trinity College, Cambridge</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">Gold Medal, Royal Astronomical Society (UK)</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">Doctor of Science, Cambridge University</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">Honorary M.A. Harvard University </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br />
</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large; font-weight: bold;">Previous employment:</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">John L. Wetherill Professor of Astronomy, Cornell University; Chairman, Department of Astronomy</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">Assistant Vice President for Research, Cornell University</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">Robert Wheeler Willson Professor of Applied Astronomy, Harvard University</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">Chief Assistant to British Astronomer Royal</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">Lecturer in advanced physics, Cambridge University</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">Radar development work, British Admiralty during World War II </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">280 publications in various fields of science, including cosmology, mechanism of mammalian hearing, nature of pulsars as rotating neutron stars, aspects of solar system research, origin of planetary hydrocarbons. For 7 years a member of the President's Space Science Panel (US).</span></div><span id="search" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; visibility: visible;"><i><br />
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<div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large; font-weight: bold;">Invited Lectureships: </span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">Vanuxem Lecture, Princeton University</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">Welch Lecture, University of Toronto</span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">Milne Lecture, Oxford University<span id="search" style="visibility: visible;"><i> </i></span><span id="search" style="visibility: visible;"><i></i></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">Goddard <span id="search" style="visibility: visible;">Space Flight Center, NASA, <i>Maryland</i></span></span><br />
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<b style="color: blue; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: x-large;">An interview with scientist Thomas Gold</b><br />
<b style="color: blue; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><a href="http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/8.07/gold_pr.html" target="_blank">http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/8.07/gold_pr.html</a></b><br />
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<b><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"><a href="http://s8int.com/wrong-science2.html" target="_blank">WHAT'S WRONG WITH SCIENCE? 2 Close Minded Science: New Ideas in Science, by Thomas Gold</a></span></b><br />
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<h2 style="background-color: white; text-align: left;"><span style="background-color: transparent; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"><b><a href="http://www.scientificexploration.org/journal/jse_03_2_gold.pdf" style="background-color: transparent;" target="_blank">Thomas Gold - New ideas In Science, 1989</a></b></span></h2><div><span style="background-color: transparent; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br />
</span></div><span style="color: blue; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"><a href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/nph-basic_connect?qsearch=%22Thomas+Gold%22&version=1" target="_blank"><b>Thomas Gold</b> publications list retrieval at Astrophysical Data System ADS by Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory SAO and NASA - Harvard Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics.</a></span></div></div>Geologisthttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03044199967329570135noreply@blogger.com10tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-32677820.post-1155510357553515342006-08-13T20:04:00.035-03:002013-11-08T01:38:25.420-02:00Origem Inorgânica do Petróleo<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<b style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background-attachment: scroll; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: 0% 0%; background-repeat: repeat repeat; color: red; font-size: 30pt;">Origem </span></b><b style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background-attachment: scroll; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: 0% 0%; background-repeat: repeat repeat; color: red; font-size: 30pt;"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Inorgânica do Petróleo</span> </span></b><br />
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<span style="font-size: large;"> A teoria da Origem Inorgânica do Petróleo (sinônimos: abiogênica, abiótica, abissal, endógena, juvenil, mineral, primordial) sustenta que o petróleo é formado por processos não biológicos nas profundezas da Terra crosta e manto. Isto contradiz a visão tradicional de que o petróleo seria um "combustível fóssil", produzido por restos de antigos organismos. O petróleo é uma mistura de hidrocarbonetos na qual o constituinte primordial é principalmente metano CH4 (molécula formada por um átomo de carbono ligado a quatro átomos de hidrogênio). A ocorrência de metano é comum no interior da Terra, sendo possível a formação de hidrocarbonetos em grandes profundidades. </span><br />
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<span style="font-size: large;">Esta teoria data do século XIX, quando o químico francês <b>Marcellin Berthelot</b> e o químico russo <b>Dmitri Mendeleev</b> a propuseram para explicar a origem do petróleo e suas teorias foram revividas na década após 1950.</span><br />
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<span style="font-size: large;">Hidrocarbonetos como petróleo e gás natural são materiais primordiais, isto é, foram originalmente incorporados à Terra durante o processo de acreção planetária e não possuem nenhuma conexão intrínseca com materiais biológicos próximos à superfície da Terra. Diversos estudos baseados em termodinâmica; experimentos de alta pressão e temperatura; muitas evidências a partir de dados geofísicos, geoquímicos e geológicos, combinados com informações de sondas espaciais e telescópios no Sistema Solar e Universo têm claramente demonstrado a origem abiótica do petróleo.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">A teoria inorgânica contrasta com as idéias que postulam a exaustão do petróleo (</span></span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large; font-style: italic;">Peak Oil</span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">), que presume que o óleo seria formado a partir de processos biológicos e, portanto ocorreria apenas em pequena e fixa quantidades, tendendo a se exaurir. De acordo com a Teoria Abiogênica (Abiótica), os hidrocarbonetos são muito abundantes no planeta, no entanto a pesquisa para descoberta de acumulações comerciais não é singela, pois deve passar pelo entendimento da geologia das áreas favoráveis e sobretudo entender a real natureza do petróleo e do gás natural.</span> <br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: small;"><b style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS",sans-serif;">Dmitri Mendeleev (1834-1907)</b></span></td></tr>
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<span style="color: blue; font-size: x-large;"><b><i>“</i></b></span><span style="color: blue; font-size: x-large;"><b><span style="font-style: italic;">O fato capital para se notar é que o petróleo nasceu nas profundezas</span> </b></span><span style="color: blue; font-size: x-large;"><b><span style="font-style: italic;">da Terra, e é somente lá que nós devemos procurar sua origem.</span></b></span><span style="font-size: x-large;"><i><b><span style="font-size: x-large;"><span style="color: blue;">” </span></span></b></i><b>—</b></span><span style="font-size: x-large;"><b>Dmitri Mendeleev, 1877. </b></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: small;"><b>Marcellin Berthelot (1827-1907)</b></span></div>
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<span style="color: blue; font-size: x-large;"><b><i>“</i></b></span><span class="long_text" id="result_box" lang="pt"><b style="color: blue;"><i><span style="font-size: x-large;"><span class="" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">Será que esses</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">combustíveis</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">resultam,</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">sempre</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">e</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">necessariamente</span><span class="" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">, de uma forma</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">a partir da</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">decomposição</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">de uma</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">substância</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">orgânica</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">pré</span><span class="" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">-existente</span><span class="" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">?</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">É</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">assim</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">com os</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">hidrocarbonetos</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">tão</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">freqüentemente</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">observados</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">em</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">erupções vulcânicas e</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">emanações</span><span class="" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">, para os quais</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">M.</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">Ch</span><span class="" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">.</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">Sainte</span><span class="atn" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">-</span><span class="" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">Claire</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">Deville</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">tem</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">chamado</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">atenção</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">nos últimos anos</span><span class="" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">?</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">Finalmente</span><span class="" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">,</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">deve-se</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">atribuir</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">uma</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">origem</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">paralela</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">à</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">matéria</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">carbonácea</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">e</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">de</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">hidrocarbonetos</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">contidos</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">em</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">certos</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">meteoritos</span><span class="" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">,</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">e</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">que parecem ter</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">uma</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">origem externa ao</span><span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas"> nosso</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">planeta</span><span class="" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">? Estas</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">são</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">questões sobre as quais</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">a opinião</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">de muitos</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">geólogos</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">distintos</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">parece</span> </span></i></b></span><span class="long_text" id="result_box" lang="pt"><b style="color: blue;"><i><span style="font-size: x-large;"><span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">ainda </span></span></i></b></span><span class="long_text" id="result_box" lang="pt"><b style="color: blue;"><i><span style="font-size: x-large;"><span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">não</span></span></i></b></span><span class="long_text" id="result_box" lang="pt"><b style="color: blue;"><i><span style="font-size: x-large;"> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">ter</span> sido fixada<span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">.</span></span></i></b></span><span style="font-size: x-large;"><i><b><span style="font-size: x-large;"><span style="color: blue;">” </span></span></b></i></span><span style="font-size: x-large;"><b>—</b></span> <span style="font-size: x-large;"><b><span style="font-size: x-large;"><span style="color: blue;"><span style="color: black;">Marcellin Berthelot, 1866</span></span></span></b><i><b><span style="font-size: x-large;"><span style="color: blue;"><br />
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<b style="font-size: xx-large;"><span lang="EN-US" style="background-attachment: scroll; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: 0% 0%; background-repeat: repeat repeat; color: red;">Comparações entre as teorias</span></b></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"><b><u><span lang="EN-US">Formação do petróleo</span></u></b></span><br />
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<span style="font-size: large;"> Há duas teorias sobre a origem de hidrocarbonetos naturais: a teoria biogênica e a teoria abiogênica. Essas teorias foram intensamente debatidas desde 1860 e com menor intensidade após a descoberta de vastas acumulações de petróleo. </span><br />
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<span style="font-size: large;"> A sugestão de que o petróleo seria formado por detritos orgânicos soterrados foi originalmente proposta pelo cientista e acadêmico russo <b>Mikhail Lomonosov</b>, em 1757. </span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"><b>* Biogênica (ortodoxa)</b>: sugestão de que remanescentes soterrados de vida vegetal e animal (detritos orgânicos) a centenas de metros de profundidade. A ação da pressão e temperatura com tempo em escala geológica converteria o querogênio em hidrocarbonetos (catagênese).</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"> Ressalte-se que na época em que foram propostas as teorias biogênicas para formação do petróleo ainda não se tinha informação das pesquisas espaciais e a tecnologia dos telescópios e sondas, pois hoje se sabe que os hidrocarbonetos são abundantes na Terra, no Sistema Solar e Universo.</span></div>
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<b>Sir Fred Hoyle (1915-2001)</b></div>
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<span style="font-size: x-large;"><b><i>“</i><i><span class="long_text" id="result_box"><span style="background-color: white;" title="The suggestion that petroleum might have arisen from some transformation of squashed fish or biological detritus is surely the silliest notion to have been entertained by substantial numbers of persons over an extended period of time">A sugestão de que o petróleo poderia ter surgido de alguma transformação de peixes esmagados ou detritos biológicos é, seguramente, a mais ridícula noção que tem sido entretida por um número substancial de pessoas durante um</span></span></i></b></span><span style="font-size: x-large;"><b><i><span class="long_text" id="result_box"><span style="background-color: white;" title="The suggestion that petroleum might have arisen from some transformation of squashed fish or biological detritus is surely the silliest notion to have been entertained by substantial numbers of persons over an extended period of time"> prolongado </span></span></i></b></span><span style="font-size: x-large;"><b><i><span class="long_text" id="result_box"><span style="background-color: white;" title="The suggestion that petroleum might have arisen from some transformation of squashed fish or biological detritus is surely the silliest notion to have been entertained by substantial numbers of persons over an extended period of time"> período de tempo</span></span></i></b></span><b><i><span style="font-size: x-large;">.</span></i></b><span style="font-size: x-large;"><i><b>”</b></i><b><i> </i><span style="color: black;">— Fred Hoyle, 1982</span></b></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"><b>* Abiogênica</b>: depósitos profundos de hidrocarbonetos aprisionados durante a formação do planeta. A centenas de quilômetros de profundidade as moléculas de hidrocarbonetos (principalmente metano) migram do manto para a crosta carregado complexas moléculas de hidrocarbonetos. Neste rápido processo de migração por descompressão súbita, gases primordiais como hélio e nitrogênio podem estar presentes e atuam como carreadores. A presença de moléculas biológicas associadas aos hidrocarbonetos é estritamente relacionada à contaminação por microrganismos procarióticos (bactérias primitivas, Archea) que se alimentam dos hidrocarbonetos primordiais e abióticos e morrem em meio a esses mesmos hidrocarbonetos deixando suas impressões como fragmentos moleculares denominados de biomarcadores. </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">Praticamente a totalidade dos hidrocarbonetos que quimicamente formam o petróleo são gerados em grandes profundidades por processos abiogênicos e, portanto, os depósitos de petróleo em níveis crustais mais rasos representam apenas o simples deslocamento de hidrocarbonetos de seu ambiente original de formação, ou seja, do manto da Terra para níveis mais rasos na crosta terrestre. </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">Uma variação da teoria abiogênica sugere que parte do petróleo possa ser formado através de reações tipo <b>Síntese </b></span><span style="font-size: large; font-weight: bold;">Fischer-Tropsch</span><span style="font-size: large;">, a partir de serpentinização do manto peridotítico, através de reações de hidrólise, produzindo hidrogênio que, ao reagir com outros compostos de carbono (metano), dióxido de carbono ou carbonatos em preseça de metais catalizadores como ferro níquel, vanádio, produz hidrocarbonetos que posteriormente migram para níveis mais rasos, principalmente nas bacias sedimentares, através de forças tectônicas e falhas profundas. </span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"><b>* Biogênica (ortodoxa)</b>: carvão seria estritamente um material oriundo de restos orgânicos (vegetais) que foi soterrado e comprimido. </span></div>
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<b style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS",sans-serif;">Mina de carvão na Indonésia</b></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"><b>* Abiogênica</b>: Carvão mineral (apenas o carvão preto) é um material que pode conter presença de compostos orgânicos (fósseis), mas que foi preenchido por hidrocarbonetos inorgânicos que migraram e atingiram esses depósitos vindos de grande profundidade e ao atingirem níveis mais rasos interagem e preservam muito bem os restos e os tecidos celulares de vegetais. Tal situação pode ocorrer na superfície com migração de metano e petróleo sobre áreas de pântanos ou turfas. </span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;">Diversos metais como Níquel, Vanádio, Cromo, Cádmio, Mercúrio, Arsênio, Chumbo, Selênio, entre outros, também estão presentes no carvão. Muitos carvões são por vezes betuminosos e também possuem elevados conteúdos de enxofre. Tal como no petróleo, esses metais são oriundos de profundezas no interior da Terra (manto). Os hidrocarbonetos primordiais presentes no carvão representam estágios de elevada perda de hidrogênio e extrema condição de biodegradação nos níveis mais superficiais como postulado pelo cientista americano Thomas Gold. </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">Também é interessante notar que os mesmos biomarcadores encontrados no petróleo também estão presentes no carvão e representam apenas partes de microrganismos procarióticos como archeas que re-trabalham hidrocarbonetos primordiais. </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">Não é rara a associação de urânio aos depósitos de carvão preto. A associação do elemento altamente venenoso e biocida - o mercúrio - com carvão é outra evidência comum. Em muitas jazidas de carvão no mundo também é comum a presença de delgadas camadas denominadas de <i>tonsteins</i>, constituídas de material caulínico, por vezes interpretadas como cinzas vulcânicas. </span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">Há algumas ocorrências de carvão no Pré-Cambriano, Neoproterozóico. De acordo com o registro de fósseis no planeta não há nenhum vegetal superior nessas idades geológicas. Desse modo o carvão do Proterozóico assim como os demais são abióticos e podem representar paleoacumulações de petróleo com alta perda de hidrogênio e biodegradadas.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"><span class="long_text" id="result_box"><span style="background-color: white;" title="Coal sometimes occur in thick layers, as shown in the photos below.">Eventualmente o carvão pode ocorrer em camadas espessas, como mostrado nas fotos abaixo. </span><span style="background-color: white;" title="It would be hard to see a swamp marsh or swamp with large thick and compacted to form a thick layer of coal.">Seria difícil imaginar um pântano ou uma área de antigas florestas com grande espessura acumulada e ainda, após a perda d'água e a compactação dos estratos, formarem uma espessa camada de carvão.</span><span style="background-color: white;" title="It is also common association of coal over oil and gas production areas."><br />
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<span style="font-size: large;"><span class="long_text" id="result_box"><span style="background-color: white;" title="It is also common association of coal over oil and gas production areas.">Também é realtivamente comum associação de carvão sobre o áreas de produção de gás</span></span></span><span style="font-size: large;"><span class="long_text" id="result_box"><span style="background-color: white;" title="It is also common association of coal over oil and gas production areas."> </span></span></span><span style="font-size: large;"><span class="long_text" id="result_box"><span style="background-color: white;" title="It is also common association of coal over oil and gas production areas.">e</span></span></span><span style="font-size: large;"><span class="long_text" id="result_box"><span style="background-color: white;" title="It is also common association of coal over oil and gas production areas."> de petróleo (Ver exemplo nas figuras abaixo)</span></span></span><span style="font-size: large;"><span class="long_text" id="result_box"><span style="background-color: white;" title="It is also common association of coal over oil and gas production areas.">.</span></span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">Somente o carvão de cor marrom (linhito) poderia ser considerado dominantemente biogênico. </span><span style="font-size: large;"><span class="long_text" id="result_box"><span style="background-color: white;" title="It is also common association of coal over oil and gas production areas."> </span></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-size: small;"><b>Camada de carvão de 30 metros - Powder River, Wyoming, EUA</b></span></span><br />
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<span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-size: small;"><b>Espessa camada de carvão. Ver o veículo como escala.</b></span></span></div>
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<b style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif;">Áreas de produção de óleo e gás natural nos Estados unidos.</b></div>
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<b style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif;">Principais bacias com carvão nos Estados Unidos.</b></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="background-attachment: scroll; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: 0% 0%; background-repeat: repeat repeat; color: red; font-size: 30pt;">Teorias </span></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="background-attachment: scroll; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: 0% 0%; background-repeat: repeat repeat; color: red; font-size: 30pt;">Modernas sobre a origem inorgânica do Petróleo</span></b><br />
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<span style="font-size: large;">O geólogo russo </span><span style="font-size: large; font-weight: bold;">Nikolai Alexandrovitch Kudryavtsev</span><span style="font-size: large;"> foi o primeiro a propor a moderna teoria do petróleo abiótico, em 1951. Ele analisou a geologia dos arenitos betuminosos de Athabasca em Alberta, Canadá (Athabasca Tar Sands) e concluiu que nenhuma "rocha geradora" poderia formar o enorme volume de hidrocarbonetos presentes nessas areias betuminosas (hoje estimada em cerca de 1,7 trilhões de barris) e, portanto a explicação mais plausível é que o petróleo é abiótico, abiogênico, inorgânico e que provém de grandes profundidades do interior da Terra, através de falhas profundas.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"><b> </b></span><span style="font-size: small;"><b style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS",sans-serif;">Nikolai A. Kudryavtsev (1893-1971)</b> </span></div>
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<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif;"><b>Vladimir B. Porfir'yev</b></span></span><span style="font-size: small;"><b style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS",sans-serif;"> (1899-1982)</b></span><span style="font-size: x-large;"><b style="color: blue;"><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif;"><br />
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<span style="font-size: x-large;"><b style="color: blue;"><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif;">“</span></i></b><b style="color: blue;"><i style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="line-height: 115%;">A </span></i></b></span><span style="font-size: x-large;"><b style="color: blue;"><i style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="line-height: 115%;">esmagadora </span></i></b></span><span style="font-size: x-large;"><b style="color: blue;"><i style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="line-height: 115%;">preponderância de evidência geológica obriga à conclusão de que o petróleo bruto e gás natural de petróleo não têm ligação intrínseca com material biológico proveniente perto da superfície da Terra. Estes são materiais primordiais que foram expelidos de grandes profundidades</span></i></b></span><span style="font-size: x-large;"><b style="color: blue;"><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif;">”</span></i></b><b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span style="color: blue;"> </span></span></i></b></span><span style="font-size: x-large;"><b><span style="color: black;">— </span></b></span><span style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: x-large;"><b>Vladimir B. Porfir'yev, 1956</b></span><br />
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<span style="font-size: large;"><b> Kudryavtsev</b> trabalhou com brilhantes cientistas como; <b>Petr N. Kropotkin, Vladimir B. Porfir'ev, Emmanuil B. Chekaliuk, Vladilen A. Krayushkin, Georgi E. Boyko, Georgi I. Voitov, Grygori N. Dolenko, Iona V. Greenberg, Nikolai S. Beskrovny, Victor F. Linetsky </b>e muitos outros.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"> A teoria Russo-Ucraniana do petróleo, baseada em cálculos termodinâmicos, foi iniciada na Ucrânia pelo cientista Professor <b>Emmanuil B. Chekaliuk</b> (1967), cujos estudos apontaram que o petróleo provém e é originado a altas pressões e temperaturas no manto da Terra, sem a participação de carbono de origem orgânica (Plantas ou animais). Esta teoria é suportada por diversos estudos experimentais de laboratório conduzidos nos Estados Unidos pelo Dr.<b> J.F. Kenney</b> e outros cientistas russos, além de <span lang="EN-US"><span style="background-attachment: scroll; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: 0% 0%; background-repeat: repeat repeat;"><b>Kolesnikov A.</b>, <b>Kutcherov V.G</b>., <b>Goncharov A.F.</b>, <b>Spanu, L.</b> entre outros</span></span></span><span style="font-size: large;">.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-size: large;"> <b style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS",sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">Emmanuil B. Chekaliuk (1909-1990)</span></b></span></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: blue; font-size: x-large;"><b><i>“</i></b></span><span style="color: blue; font-size: x-large;"><i><b><span class="long_text" id="result_box" lang="pt"><span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">A análise estatística</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">termodinâmica</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">demonstrou</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">claramente</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">que</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">as moléculas de hidrocarbonetos</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">que</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">compõem</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">o petróleo</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">exige</span>m <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">pressões muito</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">altas</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">para a sua</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">formação</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">espontânea</span><span class="" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">,</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">comparáveis</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">à </span></span></b></i></span><span style="color: blue; font-size: x-large;"><i><b><span class="long_text" id="result_box" lang="pt"><span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">mesma</span> </span></b></i></span><span style="color: blue; font-size: x-large;"><i><b><span class="long_text" id="result_box" lang="pt"><span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">pressão</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">necessária</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">para</span> a formação d<span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">o</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">diamante</span><span class="" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">.</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">Nesse</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">sentido</span><span class="" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">,</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">as moléculas</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">de hidrocarbonetos</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">são</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">os</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">polimorfos</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">de alta pressão</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">do</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">sistema de</span> </span></b></i></span><span style="color: blue; font-size: x-large;"><i><b><span class="long_text" id="result_box" lang="pt"><span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">carbono</span> </span></b></i></span><span style="color: blue; font-size: x-large;"><i><b><span class="long_text" id="result_box" lang="pt"><span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">reduzido</span><span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas"> </span><span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">como</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">diamante</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">de</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">carbono elementar.</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">Qualquer</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">noção </span><span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">que pude</span>sse <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">sugerir</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">que</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">as moléculas</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">de hidrocarbonetos</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">evoluam</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">espontaneamente</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">nos regimes</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">de temperatura</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">e pressão</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">próxima à superfície</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">da</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">Terra</span><span class="" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">, que são</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">os</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">regimes</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">de</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">criação</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">e</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">destruição</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">do metano</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">dos hidrocarbonetos</span><span class="" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">,</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">nem sequer</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">merece</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">consideração.</span></span></b></i></span><span style="color: blue; font-size: x-large;"><i><b>”</b></i></span><span style="color: blue; font-size: x-large;"><i><b><span class="long_text" id="result_box" lang="pt"><span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas"> </span></span></b></i></span><span style="font-size: x-large;"><b><span style="color: black;">— </span></b></span><span style="color: blue; font-size: x-large;"><b style="color: black;"><span class="long_text" id="result_box" lang="pt"><span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">Emmanuil B. Chekaliuk, 1968</span></span></b><i><b><span class="long_text" id="result_box" lang="pt"><span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas"><br />
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<span style="font-size: large;"> O cientista astrônomo e astrofísico americano </span><span style="font-size: large; font-weight: bold;">Thomas Gold</span><span style="font-size: large;"> foi um dos mais proeminentes proponentes da Teoria Abiogênica no ocidente. Ele afirma que o petróleo é uma substância primordial, formada a grandes profundidades no interior da Terra e também de outros planetas (sobretudo na forma de metano). A ascensão do metano, por vezes junto com hélio e nitrogênio, atinge níveis mais rasos na crosta terrestre, onde os hidrocarbonetos interagem com bactérias, contaminando o petróleo primordial. Ele propôs a teoria <b>Deep Hot Biosphere</b>, Biosfera Profunda e Quente, baseada na <b>Deep-Earth Gas Theory</b> para explicar o paradoxo do petróleo entre outros fenômenos ligados a origem e evolução dos hidrocarbonetos naturais.</span></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEixYXLHTMXpTw4auivDXUa__NuaMEavoShH-69SHtdq46fWNO4n0SJe0kjczJvoT9bmG8Xe4fgsjQHDy1zZDl-GMTi2-9NAHFAx_JqpwmMP4dHbpWcs_buwTKPSYmryAd2lNhh0/s1600/thomas+gold+1920-2004.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEixYXLHTMXpTw4auivDXUa__NuaMEavoShH-69SHtdq46fWNO4n0SJe0kjczJvoT9bmG8Xe4fgsjQHDy1zZDl-GMTi2-9NAHFAx_JqpwmMP4dHbpWcs_buwTKPSYmryAd2lNhh0/s320/thomas+gold+1920-2004.jpg" width="307" /></a><span style="font-size: x-large;"><b><i> </i></b></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: small;"><b style="color: black;">Thomas Gold (1920-2004)</b></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: x-large;"><b><i>“</i></b><i><b><span style="font-style: italic;">hidrocarbonetos não são produto biologia retrabalhada por geologia (como a visão tradicional poderia sustentar), mas certamente geologia retrabalhada por biologia.</span></b></i></span><span style="font-size: x-large;"><i><b>”</b></i><b><i> </i><span style="color: black;">— </span></b></span><span style="color: black; font-size: x-large;"><b>Thomas Gold, (1920 - 2004)</b></span><span style="font-size: large;"><i><b> </b></i></span> </div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"> Uma das predições das teorias abiogênicas é que outros planetas do sistema solar ou seus satélites possuem oceanos de hidrocarbonetos (metano, etano). Esses hidrocarbonetos ou estariam presentes na formação do sistema solar ou seriam produtos de subsequentes reações químicas. Os hidrocarbonetos estão presentes nas nebulosas, por vezes como complexos policíclicos aromáticos (PAH). Essas predições têm sido confirmadas através de sondas espaciais como a Missão Cassini-Huygens (NASA e ESA)</span></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjB-yNkO7rYngd3aVdkIkH9mcnl-ct3z9UF4swIW-gxfI854w3smgBFTEew19EgIqiYBLDQ_b5l3YlqLWzrMMKBIbKtAE9mM9PE4jOQhhJwmaCJOhOcsfZIvLxzHRonvHel5_-a/s1600/ScreenShot213.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="208" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjB-yNkO7rYngd3aVdkIkH9mcnl-ct3z9UF4swIW-gxfI854w3smgBFTEew19EgIqiYBLDQ_b5l3YlqLWzrMMKBIbKtAE9mM9PE4jOQhhJwmaCJOhOcsfZIvLxzHRonvHel5_-a/s640/ScreenShot213.jpg" width="640" /></a></div>
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<b style="color: black;"> <span style="font-size: small;">Os hidrocarbonetos são comuns no sistema solar e no universo </span></b></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjx1lXh_Ud7uqsTGlEBC3AA_MJdwRvyY7lEFoWb488WitM6dEzNr36KoogUXOkwbeZpiJCvdbM1lkQEFlgLd9nqgzFBpjVNTaQ2njmD1OiAu22qY5UKcDy0sU0D1mhx0RJWjM20/s1600/HST.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="640" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjx1lXh_Ud7uqsTGlEBC3AA_MJdwRvyY7lEFoWb488WitM6dEzNr36KoogUXOkwbeZpiJCvdbM1lkQEFlgLd9nqgzFBpjVNTaQ2njmD1OiAu22qY5UKcDy0sU0D1mhx0RJWjM20/s640/HST.jpg" width="512" /></a><b style="color: black; font-family: "Trebuchet MS",sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"> </span></b></div>
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<b style="color: black; font-family: "Trebuchet MS",sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">Imagem da Nebulosa de Orion a partir de imagens do Hubble Space Telescope (HST) e Spitzer Space Telescope (SST). As cores amarelas são devido a Hidrocarbonetos Aromáticos Policíclicos (PAH) que são comuns nas nebulosas, cometas. Esses compostos aromáticos também fazem parte do petróleo. </span></b></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"> <span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> A Associação Americana de Geólogos de Petróleo (AAPG) tem efetuado conferências sobre as questões quanto à origem do petróleo (Biogênico/Abiogênico) e a implicação na exploração e produção de petróleo, através da Hedberg Conference.</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: x-large;"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="background-attachment: scroll; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: 0% 0%; background-repeat: repeat repeat; color: red;">Evidências que suportam a Teoria Abiogênica </span></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="background-attachment: scroll; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: 0% 0%; background-repeat: repeat repeat; color: red;">do Petróleo</span></b></span></div>
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<b><u><span style="font-size: x-large;">Campos de petróleo supergigantes</span></u></b></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"> O geólogo russo <b>Nikolai Alexandrovitch Kudryavtsev</b> foi um proeminente defensor da teoria abiogênica. Ele argumentou que nenhum óleo produzido em laboratório a partir de plantas se assemelha em composição química aos hidrocarbonetos naturais como o petróleo cru.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"> Ele apresentou muitos exemplos de que, substanciais e algumas vezes comerciais quantidades de hidrocarbonetos foram encontradas em rochas cristalinas do embasamento ou em sedimentos diretamente a elas sobrepostos.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"> Ele citou casos em Kansas e na Califórnia (Estados Unidos), oeste da Venezuela e Marrocos. Também indicou que os reservatórios de petróleo em estratos sedimentares são frequentemente relacionados a expressivas fraturas/falhas profundas no embasamento imediatamente abaixo dessas acumulações. Isto é também evidenciado no campo super gigante de Ghawar, na Arábia Saudita; no campo de Panhandle-Hugoton no Texas-Kansas -Oklahoma o qual também produz hélio em quantidades comerciais; Tengiz, no Cazaquistão, White Tiger, no Vietnam; </span><span style="font-size: large;">Campo de Lula, Brasil </span><span style="font-size: large;">e inúmeros ou</span><span style="font-size: large;">tros como o campo super-gigante South Pars/North Field ou North Dome que é o maior campo de gás natural e condensado do mundo, situado no Golfo Persico e compartilhado entre Qatar e Irã.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;">No campo de petróleo de Last Soldier (Wyoming, EUA), <b>Kudryavtsev</b> estabeleceu que em todos os horizontes da seção geológica, arenitos do Cambriano ao Cretáceo Superior cobrem o embasamento e possuem reservatórios de petróleo. Um fluxo de óleo também foi obtido no próprio embasamento. </span><br />
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<span style="font-size: large;"> Hidrocarbonetos gasosos, ele notou, não são raros em rochas ígneas e metamórficas do Escudo Canadense. Petróleo em gnaisses Pré-Cambrianos é encontrado na costa ocidental do Lago Baikal, na Rússia. </span><br />
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<span style="font-size: large;"> Ele observou que o petróleo está presente, em grandes ou pequenas quantidades, mas em todos os horizontes abaixo de qualquer acumulação de petróleo, aparentemente e totalmente independente da variabilidade das condições de formação desses horizontes. Essa postulação tem se tornado conhecida com "<b>Regra de</b> <b>Kudryavtsev</b>" e muitos exemplos dela têm sido registrados em várias partes do mundo. Ele concluiu que acumulações comerciais de petróleo são simplesmente encontradas onde zonas permeáveis são cobertas por zonas impermeáveis.</span><br />
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<span style="font-size: large;"><b> Kudryavtsev </b>introduziu um número de outras relevantes considerações como argumentos. Colunas de chamas têm sido vistas durante erupções de alguns vulcões, às vezes atingindo 500 metros de altura, como durante a erupção do Monte Merapi, na Sumatra, em 1932. </span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"> As erupções de vulcões de lama (</span><span style="font-size: large; font-style: italic;">mud volcanoes</span><span style="font-size: large;">) têm liberado tão enormes quantidades de metano que mesmo o mais prolífico campo de gás sobrejacente teria se exaurido há muito tempo atrás. A água vinda com a lama desses vulcões porta algumas substâncias como Iodo (I), bromo (Br) e boro (B) que não poderiam ser derivados dos sedimentos próximos e que excedem as concentrações presentes na água do mar em centenas de vezes. Os vulcões de lama são frequentemente associados com vulcões de lava (magma) e quando próximos a esses últimos, os vulcões de lama emitem gases não combustíveis, enquanto que quando mais distantes emitem metano. </span></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjZkX9ZrHCVHsQE8nkHyKaGtmFntxA86iQcYzePxNEHUwDph55Loh4faFoBOTX7xSF6yPXK9e3agmcRWjHcYCINoQWmNf8wgqtn4QhJZZa1DW47spWSe1tyJwm6sPaJXhJ1uort/s1600/ScreenShot220.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="640" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjZkX9ZrHCVHsQE8nkHyKaGtmFntxA86iQcYzePxNEHUwDph55Loh4faFoBOTX7xSF6yPXK9e3agmcRWjHcYCINoQWmNf8wgqtn4QhJZZa1DW47spWSe1tyJwm6sPaJXhJ1uort/s640/ScreenShot220.jpg" width="609" /></a><span style="font-size: small;"> </span></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: small;">Vulcões de lama, Salse di Nirano, norte da Itália</span></b></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"><b> Kudryavtsev </b>conheceu as ocorrências de óleo em rochas do embasamento da Península de Kola (Rússia) e os escapes de óleo sobre a estrutura de impacto de Siljan, na Suécia. Ele notou, como acima mencionado, que as imensas quantidades de hidrocarbonetos presentes nas </span><span style="font-size: large; font-style: italic;">Athabasca Oil Sands</span><span style="font-size: large;"> areias betuminosas de Athabasca (</span><span style="font-size: large; font-style: italic;">Tar Sand</span><span style="font-size: large;">s), Canadá, teria que conter uma vastíssima quantidade de "rochas geradoras" de acordo com o modelo convencional, quando de fato, nenhuma fora encontrada.</span></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiPoyxyth2F04PR5LtLiFfqFHy_Ijl4LRTQ1NOtZ9TzwEeHJzxRou3xNiHLxstrh4mpRq0bN9Fg0fBwl0nT2feXLaYM6cTy4QFZ7_OWbX1e-Q9VAOaoOOnFphW0mmai4kcWen_6/s1600/ScreenShot224.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="400" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiPoyxyth2F04PR5LtLiFfqFHy_Ijl4LRTQ1NOtZ9TzwEeHJzxRou3xNiHLxstrh4mpRq0bN9Fg0fBwl0nT2feXLaYM6cTy4QFZ7_OWbX1e-Q9VAOaoOOnFphW0mmai4kcWen_6/s400/ScreenShot224.jpg" width="241" /></a></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"> </span><b style="color: black; font-family: "Trebuchet MS",sans-serif;">Mapa das areias betuminosas Athabasca Tar Sands, Alberta, Canadá. </b></div>
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<b style="color: black;"> As reservas estimadas são de 1,7 trilhões de barris de petróleo</b></div>
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<b style="color: black;">Mineração Athabasca Tar Sands, Alberta, Canadá</b></div>
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<b style="color: black;">Mapa do Campo Supergigante de Ghawar na Arábia Saudita. Possui extensão de </b><br />
<b style="color: black;">230 km. As reservas estimadas são de 250 bilhões de barris</b></div>
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<span style="font-size: x-large; font-weight: bold;"> </span><b style="color: black; font-family: "Trebuchet MS",sans-serif;">Horst do embasamento abaixo do Campo de Ghawar.</b></div>
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<b style="color: black;">Seção sísmica na parte sul do Campo de Ghawar. Notar a falha profunda no </b></div>
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<b style="color: black;">embasamento, pela qual os hidrocarbonetos </b><b style="color: black;">migram </b><b style="color: black;">e acumulam-se </b></div>
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<b style="color: black;">nos reservatórios sedimentares sobrejacentes</b></div>
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<img src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-f6FfSx3dSn8/TviRXvmR61I/AAAAAAAAAvw/C91MvnGAqa4/s400/South_Pars.gif" /> </div>
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<b>Campo de South Pars/North Dome é o maior campo de gás natural e condensado do mundo. </b><br />
<b>Possui área de 9700 km² e volumes in situ estimados de 1800 trilhões de pés cúbicos ou seja,</b><br />
<b> 51 trilhões de metros cúbicos de gás natural com 50 bilhões de barris de condensado</b></div>
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<span style="font-size: x-large; font-weight: bold;"><u>Metano e hidrocarbonetos extraterrestres </u></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"> Metano e muitos outros hidrocarbonetos têm sido detectados em diversas regiões do sistema solar. Metano é um constituinte comum da construção do cosmos e foi, junto com os demais voláteis, incorporado à Terra durante sua formação. Alternativamente poderia ter se enriquecido na Terra através de meteoritos condríticos.</span><br />
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<span style="font-size: large;"> Uma classe especial de meteoritos, designados de condritos carbonados ou carbonosos contêm cerca de 3% do seu peso em carbono, e podem apresentar diversos compostos complexos baseados em carbono, como por exemplo, porfirinas, aminoácidos, bases púricas e pirimídicas, e ácidos carboxílicos. Isso implica numa forte evidência da presença de hidrocarbonetos em regiões profundas de pretéritos corpos planetários que se desintegraram.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"> Em 2004, a Sonda Cassini-Huygens </span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: large;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white;">(</span><b style="background-color: white;">NASA</b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white;"> e </span><b style="background-color: white;">ESA</b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="background-color: white;">)</span> </span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: large;"> confirmou abundantes hidrocarbonetos (metano e etano) em Titã, um satélite (lua) de Saturno, conforme anteriormente previsto pelo astrônomo e astrofísico Thomas Gold. Titã possui centenas de vezes mais hidrocarbonetos líquidos do que todas as reservas de óleo e gás natural do planeta Terra de acordo com estimativas realizadas pela missão </span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: large;">Cassini-Huygens.</span></div>
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<b>Titã, lua de Saturno. Contém lagos e mares de </b></div>
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<b>hidrocarbonetos líquidos, principalmente metano e etano</b></div>
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<b>Imagem de composição de Radar da região do pólo Norte de Titã.</b></div>
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<b>As áreas escuras são lagos de metano líquido no hemisfério Norte.</b></div>
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<b>A atmosfera de Titã possui nitrogênio (98,4%) e o restante é metano (1,6%) e, traços de hidrogênio (0,1%). Há também traços de etano, acetileno, propano, cianoacetileno, cianeto de hidrogênio, dióxido de carbono, monóxido de carbono, cianogênio, argônio e hélio. A energia do Sol deveria converter todos os taços de metano na atmosfera de Titã em moléculas de hidrocarbonetos mais complexas em 50 milhões de anos. Isto indica que o metano deve ser reabastecido de alguma fonte a partir de Titã.</b></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"><b>O metano tem sido detectado em:</b></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;">* Júpiter </span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;">* Marte </span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;">* Saturno </span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"> ** Iapetus </span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"> ** Titã</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"> ** Enceladus</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;">* Netuno</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"> ** Tritão </span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;">* Urano </span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"> ** Ariel </span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"> ** Miranda </span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"> ** Oberon </span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"> ** Titânia </span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"> ** Umbriel </span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;">* Plutão</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;">* Cometa Halley</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;">* Cometa Hyakutake</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;">* gases interestelares e poeira cósmica</span></div>
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<u><span style="font-size: x-large; font-weight: bold;">Abundância cósmica e planetária do carbono</span></u></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"> O elemento carbono (C) é o quarto em ordem de abundância cosmológica, precedido apenas por hidrogênio (H), hélio (He) e oxigênio (O). O carbono disponível na nebulosa que originou o sistema solar foi incorporado à Terra no processo de acreção planetesimal. A diferenciação geoquímica primária fez com que elementos mais pesados ficassem concentrados no núcleo. Processos de fusão parcial continuaram na evolução do manto, crosta, hidrosfera e atmosfera. A maior parte do carbono primordial permaneceu no manto terrestre.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"> Os processos tectônicos de alta magnitude permitem ascensão de voláteis presentes no manto para níveis crustais mais rasos na Terra. As reativações das megaestruturas sob as bacias sedimentares, ao longo da história geológica, também podem promover a ascensão dos hidrocarbonetos.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: small;"><b>Abundância cósmica dos elementos</b></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"> De acordo com estudos realizados pelo <b>Massachussets Institute of Tecnology</b> (<b>MIT</b>) a estimativa de distribuição do carbono na Terra é:</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"><u>Biosfera, oceanos, atmosfera</u>..........3,7 x 10e+18 moles</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"><u>Crosta</u></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"><u>Carbono orgânico</u>........................1100 x 10e+18 moles </span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"><u>Carbonatos</u>.................................5200 x 10e+18 moles</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"><u><b>Manto</b></u>.....................................100000 x 10e+18 moles</span></div>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif; font-size: small;"><b>Estimativa de distribuição do carbono na Terra (MIT)</b></span></td></tr>
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<span style="font-size: large;"> O manto terrestre contém segundo essas estimativas cerca de 20 vezes mais carbono que nas camadas superficiais do planeta. Esse carbono presente no manto encontra-se nas formas oxidada como dióxido de carbono, carbonatos; não oxidada como diamante, hidrocarbonetos e possivelmente carbetos metálicos.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"> Há um grave problema quando se emprega a palavra "carbono orgânico" ou química orgânica. O Dr. Thomas Gold comenta que pode se ler todo o conteúdo de um livro de química orgânica sem mencionar nenhum organismo (biológico). Uma rocha que contenha carbono não significa que todo ou parte do carbono ali presente seja de origem biológica, isto é carbono de origem orgânica, fóssil. Esse carbono pode ter migrado sob a forma de hidrocarbonetos inorgânicos e interagiu com a rocha em baixa pressão, incluindo retrabalhamento por biosfera profunda, através de microrganismos que se alimentam dos hidrocarbonetos (archaea), os quais também deixam suas impressões como (biomarcadores) após morrerem em meio aos hidrocarbonetos.</span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: large;"> No processo de migração a partir de grandes profundidades, os hidrocarbonetos ascendem para níveis crustais mais rasos, carreados por hélio (He) e Nitrogênio (N</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: medium;"><sub>2</sub></span><span style="font-size: medium;"><span class="long_text" id="result_box"><span style="background-color: white;" title="No processo de migração, a partir de grandes profundidades, os hidrocabonetos ascendem para os níveis crustais mais rasos carreados principalmente por hélio (He), através de falhas no embasamento, onde ocorre subta descompressão."></span></span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: large;">) através de falhas profundas que atuam no embasamento e nas bacias após ocorrer subta descompressão. Os hidrocarbonetos podem também serem aprisionados em microporos de folhelhos auxiliado por esses gases transportadores e ali se fixarem.</span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> Ressalte-se que o material de origem biogênica na superfície da Terra possui baixíssima taxa de preservação, inicialmente devido decomposição por outros microrganismos e principalmente por processos de oxidação. Nos detritos biológicos dominam moléculas </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">de fato </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">biológicas, como carboidratos que são oxidados e não compostos hidrocarbonetos como é o caso do petróleo. Os hidrocarbonetos que por vezes estão inclusos em folhelhos são como via de regra sempre ricos em hidrogênio e portanto incompatível com derivação biológica intrínsica, isto é, o óleo presente em folhelhos é alóctone. </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">Portanto, as acumulações de hidrocarbonetos não-convencionais nos Estados Unidos, como o gás de "xisto" - <i>shale gas</i> (por exemplo, Marcellus, Barnett, Bakken, Eagle Ford, Fayetteville, Woodford, Niobrara entre outros) como também óleo de "xisto" ou <i>oil shale</i> como Green River são simplesmente reservatórios microporosas e não rochas "geradoras". </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">Um outro absurdo de alta ordem é imaginar que o calor na região de contato entre intrusões de magmas e folhelhos carbonosos poderia miraculosamente formar hidrocarbonetos. De certo modo uma intrusão, a exemplo de soleiras de diabásios em contato com rochas originalmente oleígenas poderia até remobilizar parte de hidrocarbonetos presentes em folhelhos durante o resfriamento, no entanto esses hidrocarbonetos não são autóctones, ou seja, migraram previamente para os folhelhos antes que o calor de intrusões de magmas pudesse de alguma forma afetá-los.</span></div>
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<b style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif; text-align: center;"> Estrutura molecular proposta para o asfalteno (Altamirano et al., 1986)</b><br />
<b style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif; text-align: center;"> Asfaltenos são compostos policíclicos aromáticos de alto peso molecular</b><br />
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: large;"> A presença de complexas moléculas de alto peso molecular como asfaltenos e também hélio, enxofre e metais como níquel e vanádio não possuem nenhuma conexão com materiais de origem biológica.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"> Muitos pesquisadores ligados às geociências afirmam que petróleo é formado, por exemplo, em folhelhos, que são rochas argilosas finas e laminadas. </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">No entanto, óleo, gás ou betume que possa estar associado a um folhelho, como já mencionado, constitui material alóctone e, portanto, <b>não</b> formado <i>in situ</i>. </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">Podem, não só alojar-se em rochas porosas, fraturas e ocorrer acumulação como também ficarem aprisionados em rochas laminadas e microporosas como os folhelhos, pois na migração inicial as fases são dominantemente gasosas e os regimes de pressões elevadas auxiliados pela presença de hélio pode fixar hidrocarbonetos no seio desses folhelhos. Posteriormente há interação com micróbios da biosfera profunda que pode transformar os hidrocarbonetos até restarem somente frações pesadas, com predominância de moléculas complexas não digeridas como asfaltenos e outros compostos aromáticos, formando materiais betuminosos e ainda enxofre que, com a disponibilidade de ferro, pode tornar os folhelhos ricos em pirita. Os hidrocarbonetos que migram para as rochas laminadas também promovem conservação dos fósseis e a própria abundância desses últimos, pode relacionar-se com emanação local de hidrocarbonetos, nas quais os organismos se aproximaram e ali pereceram. A não consideração desses raciocínios causa confusão e interpretação errônea de que petróleo seria de origem fóssil (<i>sic</i>).</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"> Ressalte-se que a matéria de origem biológica da superfície terrestre possui baixa taxa de preservação devido aos processos de oxidação. Nas moléculas biológicas também dominam carboidrados e outros compostos oxidados e <b>não </b>hidrocarbonetos, como é o caso do petróleo e gás natural. Esses últimos são muito ricos em hidrogênio e incompatíveis com derivação biológica intrínseca. Moléculas complexas, de alta massa molecular como asfaltenos, compostos aromáticos e, hélio, enxofre, além de metais como níquel e vanádio também <b>não </b>estão ligados a processos biológicos.</span></div>
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<u><span style="font-size: x-large; font-weight: bold;">Formação planetária fria</span></u></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"> No final do século XIX acreditava-se que a Terra primitiva era extremamente quente, completamente fundida, durante sua formação. Hoje, muitos cientistas planetários agora acreditam que a formação da Terra foi relativamente fria. Recentes estudos com zircões antigos (4.4 bilhões de anos) sugerem que naquele tempo, a superfície do planeta possuia temperaturas baixas, suficientes para manter a água líquida. A Lua possivelmente teria se formado pouco depois do processo final de acreção da Terra, através de provável um impacto gigante, por um corpo do tamanho de Marte.</span></div>
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<u><span style="font-size: x-large; font-weight: bold;">Existência de depósitos de hidrocarbonetos</span></u></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"> As reservas convencionais de petróleo deveriam desaparecer em não mais que um milhão de anos, baseada na taxa de escape de hidrocarbonetos para a superfície (</span><span style="font-size: large; font-style: italic;">seeps</span><span style="font-size: large;">, </span><span style="font-size: large; font-style: italic;">seepage</span><span style="font-size: large;">). Se há um número limitado de fontes de depósitos de hidrocarbonetos, no contexto do tempo geológico, seria uma surpreendente e extraordinária coincidência saber que ainda existam agora. Se os depósitos estão se auto-abastecendo, a sua existência atual torna-se menos surpreendente.</span><br />
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<span style="font-size: large;"> Uma questão crucial para o conceito do modelo orgânico é como poderia suportar qualquer mecanismo de suprimento das reservas de óleo mais rápido que sua exaustão. Fatos geológicos coletados em todas as bacias petrolíferas testificam que, geologicamente, os campos de óleo e gás são formados muito rapidamente, o que contradiz o tempo requerido para maturação de rochas orgânicas como se fundamenta os conceitos biogênicos. Esta é uma observação fundamental para esse modelo tradicional.</span><br />
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<span style="font-size: large;"> Uns acreditam que a origem abiogênica tem uma difícil missão por que os depósitos de hidrocarbonetos não seriam tão abundantes como as fontes abiogênicas são em larga escala. Pensar que os voláteis do manto terrestre são alegados como raros nas camadas superficiais da Terra é interessante ter em conta que rochas sólidas da crosta inferior e manto superior cobrem vastas áreas desérticas (como exemplos cinturões granulíticos e ofiolíticos). Além disso, afloramentos de rochas do manto fora do assoalho oceânico e ao longo do sistema global de cadeias meso-oceânicas são profusos neste planeta. Também, é frequentemente suposto que terremotos causam maciças descargas de hidrocarbonetos (por exemplo, exsudações de óleo catastróficas ''oil slicks'' nos oceanos) por ruptura de rochas impermeáveis. Todavia, é necessário considerar que as exsudações sempre constantes de fluidos que migram para a superfície dia-a-dia, chamada de ''cold outgassing'' tais movimentações tanto quanto ou mesmo muito mais contribuem em relação aos eventos catastróficos.</span><br />
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<span style="font-size: large;"> Alguns pensam que esse argumento seria um tanto estranho porque há evidência de fósseis nos "tar pits" (lagos de betume) cobrindo uma ampla gama de períodos e, portanto muitos deles são importantes fontes de fósseis. Isto certamente prova o reabastecimento com matéria orgânica fóssil, através do tempo geológico (centenas de milhões de anos) com a qual a origem biogênica por si só explicaria </span><span style="font-size: large; font-style: italic;">(sic)</span><span style="font-size: large;">. Entretanto, isto não tem nada em comum com a rápida formação dos campos de óleo e gás (cerca de 10 a 40 mil anos) e, geologicamente, rápida deteriorização. Os hidrocarbonetos desapareceriam rapidamente enquanto houvesse dissipação, evaporação, oxidação intensa e profunda biodegradação. Então, a pista para a solução deste problema está no balanço global do carbono e hidrogênio, fluxos e taxas de troca. </span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"> Quando cientistas e pesquisadores atentarem para esses fatos e compreenderem melhor o sistema Terra, integrando os conhecimentos da física, astrofísica e astronomia ficará claro que os hidrocarbonetos (petróleo e gás natural) são primordiais e, portanto, anteriores ao surgimento da vida.</span></div>
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<u><span style="font-size: x-large;"><b><span lang="EN-US">Metano na Terra</span></b></span></u></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"> O metano é um gás tipicamente encontrado na Terra, quando não em depósitos de gás natural, nos depósitos hidratos de metano sobre alta pressão nas planícies abissais dos oceanos, por vezes retrabalhados por bactérias em níveis mais rasos, hidratos de gás sob solos congelados "permafrost" ou ainda a partir da degradação de materiais biogênicos. Metano é um gás que causa efeito estufa </span><span style="font-size: large; font-style: italic;">greenhouse </span><span style="font-size: large;">cerca de 20 vezes mais potente que o dióxido de carbono CO2 (gás carbônico). </span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"> É possível que as maiores extinções de vida ocorridas na história da Terra sejam devido ao incremento de metano na atmosfera, através de processos geológicos, como por exemplo, rebaixamentos do nível do mar ou impactos de meteoritos, que poderiam desestabilizar hidratos de gás dos oceanos. É possível que tal situação tivesse ocorrido seja durante a crise Permo-Triássica, com a fragmentação do supercontinente Pangea ou com expressivos impactos de meteoritos durante a passagem K-Pg, do Cretáceo para o Paleógeno (Antigo Terciário Inferior).</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"> Metano reage com oxigênio produzindo gás carbônico quando interage próximo aos vulcões de magma (lava). O metano reage com água, oxigênio e cálcio formando os cimentos carbonáticos e concreções nos reservatórios sedimentares de petróleo.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"> Bactérias que vivem no interior da Terra ou ainda junto ao fundo do mar alimentam-se de metano, criando espetaculares ecossistemas, com formas de vida bizarras e ainda muito pouco estudadas, como as comunidades quimiossintéticas e corais de águas profundas. </span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"> O metano interage com rochas argilosas ricas em matéria orgânica (querogênio) e pode produzir menores contribuições de hidrocarbonetos para a formação de petróleo, devido à produção de biomarcadores verdadeiros (e.g. hopanos, terpanos os quais são oriundos de paredes celulares de bactérias) e hidrocarbonetos insaturados (alcenos), mas não propriamente petróleo. Também pode interagir com turfas nos pântanos formando depósitos de carvão, trazendo de grandes profundidades metais como mercúrio (sob a forma de metil- ou dimetil-mercúrio), arsênio, níquel, vanádio, cádmio, Chumbo, selênio, urânio, entre outros.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif; font-size: small;"><b><span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif;">Hopanos são uma classe de isoprenóides presentes em pequenas quantidades no petróleo. Sua origem é relacionada com vestígios de paredes celulares de bactérias que se alimentam e morrem em meio aos hidrocarbonetos abiogênicos primordiais</span></b></span></span><b><span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif; font-size: small;"><span style="color: black;">. </span></span></b><br />
<b><span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif; font-size: small;"><span style="color: black;">Esses vestígios são chamados de biomarcadores</span></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"> O metano (e ou mesmos carbonatos oriundos de metano oxidado) pode polimerizar no interior da Terra, através de reações de catálise tipo Síntese Fischer-Tropsch, formando hidrocarbonetos líquidos e gasosos (petróleo), através da serpentinização de peridotitos (dunito) do manto que produz hidrogênio, na presença de metais catalisadores como níquel, ferro, etc. </span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"> Deslocamentos súbitos de grandes quantidades de metano no interior da Terra podem ser causa de grandes terremotos, como apontado pelo cientista <b>Thomas Gold</b>. O escape repentino de metano para a superfície nas terras emersas ou sobre os mares também pode ser causa de certos acidentes aéreos e naufrágios. Poderia ocorrer perda de sustentação, caso a rota de aeronaves ou embarcações coincidisse com um grande fluxo de metano onde implicaria na diminuição da densidade do ar ou da água.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"> Metano possui ampla variação de estabilidade termodinâmica, conforme já constatado em diversos estudos e experimentos de alta pressão e temperatura.</span></div>
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<u><span style="font-size: x-large; font-weight: bold;">Depósitos incomuns</span></u></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"> Depósitos de hidrocarbonetos são encontrados em áreas condenadas pela ortodoxa teoria biogênica tradicional. Alguns campos de óleo estão sendo realimentados a partir de fontes profundas, embora isso não seja uma regra para uma "rocha geradora biogênica" profunda. Exemplos constatados de reabastecimento em campos de petróleo foram reportados em Eugene Island, Bloco 330, no Golfo do México. Os russos também constataram reabastecimento no campo supergigante de Romashkinokoye, assim como os americanos também perceberam o fenômeno na Prudhoe Basin, North Slope, Alaska. Trata-se de um fenômeno comum na maioria dos campos de petróleo e gás natural. Quando a pressão crítica for ultrapassada ou quando ocorrer um sismo poderá haver reabastecimento dos reservatórios desde que a configuração estrutural assim o permita. </span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"> No campo de White Tiger, Vietnam e muitos campos na Rússia, óleo e gás natural estão sendo produzidos em reservatórios situados em granitos do embasamento cristalino, com alguns poços evidenciando presença de hidrocarbonetos a mais de mil metros abaixo do topo do embasamento granítico. No caso do Vietnam não há nenhuma rocha fonte abaixo do nível produtor e pela teoria biogênica teria que haver uma migração de várias dezenas de quilômetros para que o óleo migrasse lateralmente, quando através de uma análise lógica torna-se simples concluir que a migração dos hidrocarbonetos é oriunda das falhas profundas que afetam o embasamento e que permitem comunicação com o manto.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"><b><span style="font-size: small;">Modelo do Campo de White Tiger, Vietnam. </span></b></span><b><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-size: small;">A produção de petróleo </span></span></b><br />
<b><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-size: small;">é feita em rocha granítica do embasamento fraturado, a mais de </span></span></b><br />
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<span style="font-size: large;"> Os "</span><span style="font-size: large; font-style: italic;">black shales</span><span style="font-size: large;">" de idade arqueana no Cráton de Pilbara (3.25 Ga), Austrália, apresentam inclusões fluidas de óleo e pirobetumes. Há muitas evidências de betumes em rochas muito antigas, principalmente associando mineralizações. Os hidrocarbonetos primordiais também podem conduzir compostos metálicos e depositá-los através de processos hidrotermais.</span><br />
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<u><span style="font-size: x-large; font-weight: bold;">Micróbios nas profundezas da Terra</span></u></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"> Vida microbial tem sido descoberta a 4,2 Km de profundidade no Alaska e 5,2 Km na Suécia. Organismos metanófilos são conhecidos há tempo, e recentemente foi encontrada vida microbial no Parque de Yellowstone, nos Estados Unidos, sendo baseada no metabolismo de hidrogênio. Outros organismos de ambientes profundos e quentes (bactérias extremófilas) continuam a ser descobertos e também aqueles que suportam ambientes estressantes, como por exemplo, lagos hipersalinos.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"> Proponentes da Teoria Abiogênica ou origem inorgânica do petróleo apontam que a biosfera profunda é responsável pelos biomarcadores presentes no petróleo, isto é, esses biomarcadores são na realidade contaminantes orgânicos dos hidrocarbonetos naturais.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: x-small;"> <span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif; font-size: small;"><b>Vida microbial em profundidade alimentada por hidrocarbonetos primordiais. </b></span></span><br />
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<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-size: small;"><b>Concepção artística da Biosfera Profunda e Quente </b></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-size: small;"><b>(The Deep Hot biosphere, Thomas Gold 1999)</b></span></span></div>
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<u><span style="font-size: x-large; font-weight: bold;">Hélio</span></u></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"> Associação de gás hélio em campos de gás natural e petróleo é bastante comum. Enquanto que o ³He é um gás primordial, muito ²He é também gerado a partir do decaimento radioativo do urânio. O Hélio é associado geralmente com óleos leves, muitas vezes acompanhado de nitrogênio e metano. Esses gases auxiliam na migração profunda do petróleo líquido para níveis crustais mais rasos. </span><br />
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<span style="font-size: large;"> Nenhum processo biológico conhecido produz hélio, portanto, sua estreita relação com o petróleo é um forte argumento para a Teoria Abiogênica. Acumulações comerciais de hélio são em geral mais raras, no entanto sempre estão associadas com petróleo e gás natural. No campo de gás de Panhandle-Hugoton em Kansas e Texas, EUA, há importante produção de hélio. Há também outros campos como na Argélia e na Rússia com importantes teores. </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"> A retenção do hélio necessita de condições específicas, como por exemplo, haver uma rocha selante extremamente efetiva sobre os reservatórios, em geral rochas salíferas como halita, anidrita (também ditas "evaporitos"). </span><br />
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<span style="font-size: large;"> O hélio radiogênico formado em níveis crustais não teria pressão suficiente para se incorporar a partir das rochas junto aos reservatórios de metano e óleos leves. A hipótese mais lógica é, portanto, que sua migração vem de grandes profundidades (manto) trazendo consigo outros hidrocarbonetos. Agumas vezes o hélio ocorre associado com dióxido de carbono, ambos provavelmente primordiais.</span></div>
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<u><span style="font-size: x-large; font-weight: bold;">Elementos traço, metais associados</span></u></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"> Níquel (Ni), Vanádio (V), Chumbo (Pb), Arsênio (As), Cádmio (Cd), Mercúrio (Hg), Cobalto (Co), Cromo (Cr), e outros metais são frequentemente encontrados no petróleo, principalmente o Níquel e Vanádio. Alguns óleos pesados, como exemplo alguns óleos crus da Venezuela, chegam ter até 45% de Vanádio (pentóxido) nas cinzas, valores esses que chegam a ser comerciais. </span><br />
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<span style="font-size: large;"> O níquel e vanádio configuram como elementos centrais nas moléculas de porfirinas, que costumam concentrarem-se nas porções mais biodegradadas, juntamente com asfaltenos. Ressalte-se que a molécula de clorofila, que também é uma pofirina com núcleo de magnésio, praticamente inexiste no petróleo. Se o petróleo tivesse origem a partir de plantas ou algas com clorofila deveria possuir porfirinas de magnésio, mas isso não ocorre.</span><br />
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<span style="font-size: large;"> Esses metais e sua paragênese são comuns no manto da Terra. Esses elementos traço também são chamados de não-biomarcadores ou "abiomarcadores", mas através das paragêneses dos metais é possível estabelecer assinaturas para identificação de proveniência dos óleos crus (petróleo).</span><br />
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<span style="font-size: large;"> A presença de mercúrio (Hg) é notável em muitos campos de gás e também de óleo, oil shales, carvões pretos, etc. O mercúrio, como já mencionado, pode migrar na forma de compostos organometálicos como metil ou dimetil-Hg. É um elemento altamente tóxico, biocida, e não pode ter nenhuma relação intrínseca com atividade biológica. Até o mercúrio presente em turfas pode ser oriundo de emanações através de falhas profundas que trazem metano para níveis superficiais.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"> Análise de 22 elementos traço em 77 óleos, quimicamente os correlacionam melhor com a composição de meteoritos condríticos, com o manto peridotítico serpentinizado fértil e manto primitivo do que com a crosta oceânica ou continental, e não mostram nenhuma correlação com as distribuições químicas na água do mar (<b>Szatmari <span style="font-style: italic;">et al</span>., 2005</b>). </span></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-size: small;">Comparação da média de elementos-traço de 67 petróleos do Brasil (ppb) com condrito,</span></span><span style="font-size: small;"> manto serpentinizado UB-N, manto primitivo, espinélio </span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: small;">peridotito do manto e manto depletado (ppm). As correlações são melhores com o manto serpentinizado. </span></b><span style="font-size: small;"><b>Szatmari et al., (2007)</b></span></div>
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<u><span style="font-size: x-large; font-weight: bold;">Diamantóides</span></u></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"> Minúsculos diamantóides ocorrem no petróleo (óleo, gás e condensados). São moléculas que possuem similar arranjo da estrutura de átomos como os diamantes, ou seja, no sistema cristalino cúbico e, suspeita-se que sua origem seja também relacionada aos ambientes de origem dos kimberlitos e lamproítos, que portam diamantes naturais, a partir de altíssimas pressões e temperatura no manto da Terra, trazendo-os para a superfície. Esses diamantóides, encontrados com maior abundância nos condensados, que são óleos muito leves. Diamantóides são excelente matéria-prima para a nanotecnologia e são também, provavelmente, o mais nobre dos produtos presentes nos hidrocarbonetos naturais.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: small;"><b>Cristais de diamantóides têm presença ubíqua nos hidrocarbonetos, </b></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: small;"><b>principalmente nos condensados e gás</b></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large; font-weight: bold;"><u style="color: blue;"><span style="font-size: x-large;">Hidrogênio</span></u> </span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"> O petróleo é composto principalmente por alcanos (n-alcanos, parafinas). <b>Sir Robert Robinson</b>, Prêmio Nobel em Química (1947), estudou a constituição do petróleo natural em grande detalhe, e concluiu que havia muito excesso de hidrogênio para que fosse produto de detritos orgânicos de plantas ou animais. As olefinas (alcenos), que são hidrocarbonetos insaturados, é que deveriam ser esperados caso a fonte fosse orgânica. Ele então escreveu: </span></div>
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<span style="font-size: small;"><b>Sir Robert Robinson (1886-1975)</b></span></div>
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<span style="color: blue; font-size: x-large;"><b><i>“</i></b></span><span class="long_text" id="result_box" lang="pt" style="color: blue;"><i><b><span style="font-size: x-large;"><span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">Na verdade,</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">não</span> se <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">pode</span> por <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">demais enfatizar</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">que</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">o petróleo</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">não apresenta</span> um quadro da<span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas"></span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">composição prevista</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">de</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">produtos </span></span></b></i></span><span class="long_text" id="result_box" lang="pt" style="color: blue;"><i><b><span style="font-size: x-large;"><span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">biogênicos</span><span class="" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas"></span></span></b></i></span><span class="long_text" id="result_box" lang="pt" style="color: blue;"><i><b><span style="font-size: x-large;"><span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas"> modificados</span><span class="" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">,</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">e todos os argumentos</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">dos</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">constituintes</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">dos</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">óleos</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">antigos</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">encaixam</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">tão bem</span><span class="" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">, ou</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">melhor,</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">com a</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">concepção de</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">uma</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">mistura</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">de hidrocarbonetos</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">primordiais</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">para a</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">qual</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">bio</span><span class="atn" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">-</span><span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">produtos foram</span> <span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas">adicionados</span></span></b></i><span class="" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas"><i><b><span style="font-size: x-large;"></span></b></i></span><span class="hps" title="Clique para mostrar traduções alternativas"></span></span><span style="color: blue; font-size: x-large;"><i><b>.”</b></i></span><span style="font-size: x-large;"><i><b><span style="color: blue;"> </span> </b></i><b>— </b><b>Sir Robert Robinson (Nobel de Química, 1947)</b></span></div>
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<u><span style="font-size: x-large; font-weight: bold;">Termodinâmica</span></u></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"> A </span><span style="font-size: large; font-weight: bold;">2a. Lei da Termodinâmica</span><span style="font-size: large;"> proíbe a formação espontânea de hidrocarbonetos mais pesados que o metano a baixas pressões. Cálculos termodinâmicos e diversos estudos experimentais efetuados na Rússia e Estados Unidos confirmam que os n-alcanos (componentes comuns no petróleo) não evoluem espontaneamente a partir do metano a pressões tipicamente encontradas nas bacias sedimentares, portanto a Teoria Abiogênica para origem dos hidrocarbonetos sugere geração profunda (abaixo de 150-200 km, de acordo com estudos realizados pelo Dr. <b>J.F. Kenney</b> e colaboradores). Esses estudos de estabilidades termodinâmicas e energias livres do sistema Carbono-Hidrogênio claramente demonstram que as moléculas biológicas como os carboidratos possuem baixo potencial químico enquanto que os hidrocarbonetos têm alto potencial químico, portanto a intrínseca formação de petróleo a partir de detritos biológicos não está de acordo com leis naturais.</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"> Imaginar e sugerir que, por exemplo, os motores a jato de um avião (turbinas) tenham sua força de propulsão para levantá-lo no ar com energia derivada dos chamados "combustíveis fósseis" é de fato uma tola noção. </span></div>
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<span style="color: blue; font-size: x-large;"><b><i>“</i></b></span><span style="font-size: x-large;"><b style="color: blue;"><span style="font-style: italic;">O sistema Hidrogênio-Carbono não evolui espontaneamente a pressões menores que 30 Kbar, mesmo nas mais favoráveis condições ambientais. O sistema H-C evolui hidrocarbonetos sob pressões encontradas no manto da Terra e a temperaturas consistentes com aquele ambiente</span></b></span><span style="color: blue; font-size: x-large;"><i><b>”</b></i></span><span style="font-size: x-large;"><b> — </b><b>J. F. Kenney </b></span></div>
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<b><span class="long_text" id="result_box" style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif;"><span style="background-color: white;" title="Methane (CH4) is the most stable molecule of the hydrocarbons, most of it would survive at all levels down to 300 kilometers, provide the temperature there did not exceed 2000 oC.">Estabilidade dos hidrocarbonetos a temperaturas e pressões na Terra, Chekaliuk (1976).</span></span></b><b><span class="long_text" id="result_box" style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif;"><span style="background-color: white;" title="Methane (CH4) is the most stable molecule of the hydrocarbons, most of it would survive at all levels down to 300 kilometers, provide the temperature there did not exceed 2000 oC."> Metano (CH4) é a molécula mais estável dos hidrocarbonetos, a maioria deles iria sobreviver a todos os níveis até 300 km, desde que a temperatura lá não</span></span><span style="background-attachment: scroll; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: 0% 0%; background-repeat: repeat repeat; font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif;"> </span>ultrapasse 2000</span></b><span style="font-size: small;"><b><sup><span style="background-attachment: scroll; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: 0% 0%; background-repeat: repeat repeat; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; line-height: 115%;"> o</span></sup></b></span><b><span style="background-attachment: scroll; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: 0% 0%; background-repeat: repeat repeat; font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">C.</span><span class="long_text" id="result_box" style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif;"><span style="background-color: white;" title="Methane (CH4) is the most stable molecule of the hydrocarbons, most of it would survive at all levels down to 300 kilometers, provide the temperature there did not exceed 2000 oC."> </span><span style="background-color: white;" title="For the other components pf natural petroleum-paraffins, aromatics and naphthenes - the percentages in equilibrium are shown, these would be the values most likely to be produced from a mixture of hydrogen and carbon.">Para os outros componentes naturais do petróleo parafinas, aromáticos e naftenos - as percentagens em equilíbrio são mostradas, estes seriam os valores mais prováveis de serem produzidos a partir de uma mistura de hidrogênio e carbono. </span><span style="background-color: white;" title="Methane streaming from great depth could bring up, in solution, significant fractions of these petroleum components.">Metano vindo de grande profundidade pode trazer, em solução, as frações significativas destes componentes do petróleo.</span></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"> A vida tal como a conhecemos é baseada fundamentalmente em carbono. Os primitivos organismos vivos (archeobactérias) retiram energia do metano primordial ou petróleo (hidrocarbonetos) que estão nas profundezas da Terra. Muitas bactérias também aproveitam o oxigênio a partir da redução de sulfatos e produzem gás sulfídrico (H</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: medium;"><sub><b>2</b></sub></span><span style="font-size: large;">S). Essa biosfera profunda forma os contaminantes do petróleo e torna-se, através desses vestígios, partes dos chamados biomarcadores encontrados no petróleo natural. A fotossíntese é um processo bastante complicado que os primitivos organismos desenvolveram para auxiliá-los na conquista e sobrevivência na superfície do planeta. Isto pode ter ocorrido quando a fonte local de hidrocarbonetos possa ter cessado. O astrofísico Thomas Gold mencionou que as primitivas bactérias inventaram a fotossíntese para conquistar a superfície fazer seu próprio alimento, isto é, seres autótrofos.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: small;"><b>Árvore filogenética da vida</b></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: small;"><b>Fumarolas</b><b> negras (<i>Black smokers</i>) no fundo do oceano e comunidades </b></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: small;">quimiossintéticas associadas</span></b></div>
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<b><u><span style="font-size: x-large;">Serpentinização e síntese química de óleo - </span><span style="font-size: x-large;">Síntese Fischer-Tropsch</span></u></b></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"> Outra possível formação de óleo inorgânico é através da </span><span style="font-size: large; font-weight: bold;">Síntese Fischer-Tropsch</span><span style="font-size: large;">. A catálise Fischer-Tropsch converte monóxido de carbono, dióxido de carbono e metano em várias formas de hidrocarbonetos líquidos. O monóxido e dióxido de carbono são gerado através da oxidação parcial de carvão ou combustível lenhoso. Este processo foi desenvolvido e usado exaustivamente na II Guerra Mundial pela Alemanha, a qual tinha limitado acesso aos suprimentos de petróleo. Ainda hoje é usado na África do Sul para produzir diesel a partir do carvão. </span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"> Serpentinização de rochas ultramáficas peridotíticas ricas em carbono envolvem reações Fischer-Tropsch e acredita-se que ocorra em profundidade, quando o manto peridotítico é hidrolisado tornando-se serpentinito enquanto há desprendimento de hidrogênio. Na presença de metais de transição catalisadores (Fe, Ni, Co) o hidrogênio reage com dióxido de carbono das rochas carbonáticas e resultam em hidrocarbonetos n-alcanos, incluindo hidrocarbonetos lineares saturados, álcoois, aldeídos, cetonas, aromáticos e compostos cíclicos. Também é possível que o metano de regiões mais profundas do manto seja polimerizado pela Síntese Fischer-Tropsch formando n-alcanos e outros hidrocarbonetos. Dessa forma essas reações, embora não forme todas as moléculas presentes no petróleo, poderia contribuir na formação de parte dos hidrocarbonetos com liberação de hidrogênio </span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: large;">e polimerização de metano</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: large;"> a partir da serpentinização de peridotitos do manto superior, como sugerido por <b>Szatmari </b>(1989) .</span></div>
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<u style="color: blue;">Associação do petróleo com estruturas profundas</u></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"> Campos de óleo e gás são encontrados principalmente sobre estruturas profundas presentes no embasamento cristalino, relacionados a limites de placas litosféricas, estruturas de impacto de meteoritos (crateras de impacto). Esta associação pode ser observada de acordo com a distribuição de campos de petróleo ao longo dos arcos, como por exemplo, na Indonésia, Golfo Pérsico, Apeninos (Itália), Alaska, Arco de Barbados e sua continuidade para Trinidad e Tobago e Venezuela entre outros. Nas bacias de margem divergente ou também em riftes abortados, as ocorrências petróleo estão associadas à falhas extensionais de grande magnitude que comunicam com a crosta com manto em elevação. São exemplos desse contexto as regiões petrolíferas do rifte Atlântico, Mar do Norte (Viking Graben), Bacia do Recôncavo, entre outras. Reativações geológicas importantes ao longo do preenchimento das bacias sedimentares facilitam a migração de hidrocarbonetos para altos estruturais, os quais são formados por falhas de grande rejeito vertical onde as estruturas podem formar acumulações quando encontram rochas reservatório (poros, fraturas) e rochas impermeáveis (selantes, capeadoras), formando armadilhas ou trapas.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: x-large; font-weight: bold;"><u style="color: blue;">Por que o petróleo é frequentemente encontrado em bacias sedimentares?</u> </span> </div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"> As bacias sedimentares preenchem áreas de depressão onde ocorreram falhas profundas, associadas a limites de placas (riftes, convergência por compressão ou colisão continental entre duas placas litosféricas). Os estratos sedimentares formam excelentes reservatórios (espaços porosos) e também rochas selantes que quando combinados podem formar armadilhas para hidrocarbonetos. Essas armadilhas estão conectadas com fontes profundas, através de falhas também muito profundas, havendo interações com o manto durante a evolução da bacia. O petróleo também ocorre em rochas cristalinas do embasamento, embora as acumulações sejam mais raras, pelo fato do desconhecimento da geologia desses terrenos, havendo ainda pouco esforço exploratório para perfuração de poços e pesquisas nesse contexto. O sucesso das descobertas das acumulações nas bacias sedimentares deve-se intrinsicamente ao notável desenvolvimento dos métodos de sísmica de reflexão, os quais permitem melhor identificação de estruturas para melhor posicionar poços e predição de reservatórios.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"> Os hidrocarbonetos (petróleo, gás) migram, através falhas geológicas de grandes profundidades, para as rochas sedimentares e alojam-se principalmente nos reservatórios (rochas com porosidade e / ou fraturadas), no entanto é bastante comum a interação entre hidrocarbonetos alóctones com rochas interestratificadas e laminadas, como por exemplo, folhelhos e ou alternância de folhelhos e rochas carbonáticas delgadas, conduzindo a equivocada interpretação de que esses litótipos seriam "rochas fonte" </span><span style="font-size: large;"><b><span style="font-style: italic;">(sic) </span></b>de petróleo.</span><br />
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<b>Campos de petróleo no Oriente Médio. A Placa Arábica possui tamanho relativamente pequeno e sofreu diversas convulsões e reativações ao longo de sua história geológica. Os campos de petróleo relacionam-se com estruturas profundas pelas quais os hidrocarbonetos migram para excelentes reservatórios nas bacias sedimentares, do Precambriano ao Cenozóico. Esses são motivos que explicam porque nessa região há petróleo em abundância</b></div>
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<b>Estrutura do Arco da Indonésia. As ocorrências de petróleo e carvão estão relacionadas com zonas sismogênicas, </b><br />
<b>vulcanismo de lama e de </b><b>lava em limite de placa</b></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"> </span><b style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS",sans-serif;">Estrutura da Placa do Caribe. As ocorrências de petróleo na Venezuela e países </b></div>
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<b>vizinhos se alinham ao limite da placa, <span style="font-size: small;">onde oco</span>rrem falhas profundas que </b></div>
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<b>permitem a ascensão dos hidrocarbonetos para as bacias sedimentares</b></div>
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<u><span style="font-size: x-large;"><b>Modelos conceituais de regimes distensionais nos quais nota-se a interação do manto e a formação de trends petrolíferos que acompanham as megaestruturas.</b></span></u></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEivX_po9eMGtfUNYDP0EKP3YGDBBUuBYFNICPsSehuCBsc7oNjxEiPqyFrpFP3iXBJLymLDuHX_JBsD-t6QtXm63EtRMxGnLjtkHpZDjpjC3OgcRIDzJS0UW43SX6eVLFsZXkJG/s1600/ScreenShot240.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="640" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEivX_po9eMGtfUNYDP0EKP3YGDBBUuBYFNICPsSehuCBsc7oNjxEiPqyFrpFP3iXBJLymLDuHX_JBsD-t6QtXm63EtRMxGnLjtkHpZDjpjC3OgcRIDzJS0UW43SX6eVLFsZXkJG/s640/ScreenShot240.jpg" width="532" /></a></div>
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<b style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS",sans-serif;">Modelo de abertura oceânica e formação de bacias distensionais de margens divergentes tal como as do Atlântico. A Reativação das antigas estruturas que formaram a bacia sedimentar permitirá ascensão de hidrocarbonetos do manto para a crosta, onde as rochas das bacias sedimentares formam melhores reservatórios e sistemas selantes em situação estrutural favorável para acumulações</b></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiGOI0TwB01cx5hQ2dOjEKRxTzD_PNJbOae2Cg0OZhsSsvBi27-cKjDH-FSLNmCH4BjOV3nZ7RYRXE2rEti8BkzDqVVjzWFT_hR2fCJdPrjunHKDeUHlfspUNbyqXwfjEBoUDf7/s1600/ScreenShot241.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="436" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiGOI0TwB01cx5hQ2dOjEKRxTzD_PNJbOae2Cg0OZhsSsvBi27-cKjDH-FSLNmCH4BjOV3nZ7RYRXE2rEti8BkzDqVVjzWFT_hR2fCJdPrjunHKDeUHlfspUNbyqXwfjEBoUDf7/s640/ScreenShot241.jpg" width="640" /></a></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif;">Modelo para o Viking Graben no Mar do Norte. As grandes acumulações dessa área seguem claramente o trend extensional do rifte, onde há interação com manto através de falhas profundas que</span><span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif;"> permitem a ascensão dos hidrocarbonetos primordiais para as bacias sedimentares e sua consequente acumulação</span></span></b></div>
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<span style="color: black; font-size: x-large;"><b><i> </i></b></span><br />
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<span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-size: x-large;"><b style="color: blue;"><i>“Geology is the prisoner of several dogmas that have had widespread influence on the development of scientific thought.” </i></b></span> </span><span style="font-size: large;"><b> </b></span><span style="font-size: x-large;"><b>— </b><b>William R. Corliss, 1975</b></span><br />
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<span style="font-size: large;">ou seja:</span><br />
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<span style="color: black; font-size: x-large;"><i><b>“</b></i></span><span style="font-size: x-large;"><span class="long_text" id="result_box"><span style="background-color: white;" title="“Geology is the prisoner of several dogmas that have had widespread influence on the development of scientific thought.”">Geologia é prisioneira de vários dogmas que tiveram ampla influência sobre o desenvolvimento do pensamento científico.</span></span></span><span style="color: black; font-size: x-large;"><b><i>”</i></b></span><span style="font-size: large;"><span class="long_text" id="result_box"><span style="background-color: white;" title="“Geology is the prisoner of several dogmas that have had widespread influence on the development of scientific thought.”"><span style="font-size: x-large;"><span style="color: black;"> </span></span></span></span></span><br />
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<span style="font-size: x-large;"><i><b><span style="color: blue;">“It is a singular and notable fact that, while most other branches of science have emancipated themselves from the trammels of metaphysical reasoning, the science of geology still remains imprisoned in ‘a priori’ theories.”</span> </b></i><b>— </b><b>Sir Henry H. Howorth, 1895</b></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;">ou seja:</span><br />
<span style="color: black; font-size: large;"><span style="font-size: x-large;"><b><i></i></b></span></span><span style="font-size: large;"><span class="long_text" id="result_box"><span style="background-color: white;" title="“Geology is the prisoner of several dogmas that have had widespread influence on the development of scientific thought.”"><span style="color: black;"> </span></span></span></span><br />
<span style="color: black; font-size: x-large;"><i><b>“</b></i></span><span style="font-size: x-large;"><span class="long_text" id="result_box"><span style="background-color: white;" title="“It is a singular and notable fact that, while most other branches of science have emancipated themselves from the trammels of metaphysical reasoning, the science of geology still remains imprisoned in 'a priori' theories.”">É um fato singular e notável que, enquanto a maioria dos outros ramos da ciência se emancipou da dificuldade de raciocínio metafísico, a ciência da geologia continua a ser presa em </span></span></span><span style="font-size: x-large;"><span class="long_text" id="result_box"><span style="background-color: white;" title="“It is a singular and notable fact that, while most other branches of science have emancipated themselves from the trammels of metaphysical reasoning, the science of geology still remains imprisoned in 'a priori' theories.”">teorias</span></span></span><span style="font-size: x-large;"><span class="long_text" id="result_box"><span style="background-color: white;" title="“It is a singular and notable fact that, while most other branches of science have emancipated themselves from the trammels of metaphysical reasoning, the science of geology still remains imprisoned in 'a priori' theories.”"> </span></span><i><span class="long_text" id="result_box"><span style="background-color: white;" title="“It is a singular and notable fact that, while most other branches of science have emancipated themselves from the trammels of metaphysical reasoning, the science of geology still remains imprisoned in 'a priori' theories.”">a priori</span></span><span class="long_text" id="result_box"><span style="background-color: white;" title="“Geology is the prisoner of several dogmas that have had widespread influence on the development of scientific thought.”"><span style="color: black;"> </span></span></span></i></span><span style="font-size: x-large;"><span class="long_text" id="result_box"><span style="background-color: white;" title="“Geology is the prisoner of several dogmas that have had widespread influence on the development of scientific thought.”"><span style="color: black;"> </span></span></span></span><span style="font-size: x-large;"><span class="long_text" id="result_box"><span style="background-color: white;" title="“It is a singular and notable fact that, while most other branches of science have emancipated themselves from the trammels of metaphysical reasoning, the science of geology still remains imprisoned in 'a priori' theories.”">. </span></span></span><span style="color: black; font-size: x-large;"><b><i>”</i></b></span><span style="font-size: large;"><span class="long_text" id="result_box"><span style="background-color: white;" title="“Geology is the prisoner of several dogmas that have had widespread influence on the development of scientific thought.”"><span style="color: black;"> </span></span></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: x-large;"><span style="color: blue;"><b style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><i><span lang="EN-US">“</span></i></b><i style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><b>What is the ape to man? A laughing-stock, a thing of shame. And just the same shall man be to the Superman: a laughing-stock, a thing of shame. </b></i></span></span><br />
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<span style="font-size: x-large;"><i><b> Ye have made your way from the worm to man, and much within you is still worm. Once were ye apes, and even yet man is more of an ape than any of the apes.</b></i><i><span lang="EN-US"><b>” </b></span></i><span lang="EN-US"><b></b></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: x-large;"><span lang="EN-US"><b><span style="color: black;"></span> </b></span></span><span style="color: black;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times, serif; font-size: 24pt;"><b><span style="font-size: x-large;">Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche (1844-1900)</span></b></span></span></div>
<span style="background-color: white;"></span><span style="background-color: white; font-size: x-large;"><i style="color: black;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times, serif;"></span></i></span><span style="background-color: white; font-size: medium;"><i style="color: black;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times, serif;"></span></i></span><br />
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<span style="font-size: x-large;"><i style="color: black;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times, serif;"><b>From:</b></span></i></span><b><span style="font-size: x-large;"> Thus Spoke Zarathustra</span></b></div>
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<span style="color: black; font-size: x-large;"> “</span><span style="font-size: x-large;"><span class="long_text" id="result_box"><span style="background-color: white;" title="“What is the ape to man?"><span style="color: black;">Assim Falou Zarathustra</span></span></span></span><span style="color: black; font-size: x-large;">”</span></div>
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<i style="color: black;"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: Times, serif; font-size: 24pt;"><b><span style="font-size: x-large;"> </span></b></span></i><span style="font-size: large;">ou seja:</span><br />
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<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=32677820" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"></a><i><span style="color: black; font-size: x-large;">“</span><span style="font-size: x-large;"><span class="long_text" id="result_box"><span style="background-color: white;" title="“What is the ape to man?">O que é o macaco para o homem? </span><span title="A laughing-stock, a thing of shame.">Uma zombaria ou uma dolorosa vergonha. </span><span style="background-color: white;" title="And just the same shall man be to the Superman: a laughing-stock, a thing of shame.">Pois é o mesmo que deve ser o homem para o Super-homem: um motivo de riso, uma coisa de vergonha. </span><span style="background-color: white;" title="Ye have made your way from the worm to man, and much within you is still worm.">Percorrestes o caminho que medeia do verme ao homem, e ainda em vós resta muito do verme. </span><span style="background-color: white;" title="Once were ye apes, and even yet man is more of an ape than any of the apes.”">Noutro tempo fostes macacos, e hoje o homem ainda é mais macaco do que todos os macacos.</span></span></span><span style="color: black; font-size: x-large;">”</span></i></div>
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Geologisthttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03044199967329570135noreply@blogger.com3